Abstract
Research initiated in 1988 on the biological control of the invasive Neotropical shrub Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (Asteraceae) in South Africa is described in this review. The origin of the southern African C. odorata biotype has been determined as the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean. Regions of the Neotropics which are climatically similar to the area invaded by the weed in southern Africa have been identified, allowing for better climatic matching of potential biological control agents. Two insect agents, Pareuchaetes insulata (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), which was released in 2001, and Calycomyza eupatorivora Spencer (Diptera: Agromyzidae), released in 2003, have become established on C. odorata in South Africa, primarily in the wetter, coastal regions. While these agents have inflicted sporadic, localized damage on the weed, it is clear that their impact on C. odorata populations will be insufficient to effect adequate suppression of the weed throughout its invasive range in South Africa. Thus, research on a wide range of insect and pathogen species which have potential as biological control agents has been ongoing. Initial releases of a stem-boring weevil, Lixus aemulus Petri (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), have been made, and host-range testing of the shoot-tip borer Dichrorampha odorata Brown & Zachariades (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) indicates that it is suitable for release. The root feeder Longitarsus sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was rejected because it was shown to have a wide host range. Four promising insect species are currently being investigated, namely the stem galler Conotrachelus reticulatus Champion (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), the stem borer Carmenta chromolaenae Eichlin (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), the stem and root-crown borer Recchia parvula (Lane) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and the shoot-tip borer Melanagromyza eupatoriella Spencer (Diptera: Agromyzidae). Sustained efforts have been made to collect and isolate pathogens from C. odorata in the Americas, but all pathogens either failed to produce symptoms or were insufficiently virulent on the southern African biotype of the target plant. Although considerable efforts and resources have been expended on research and implementation of biological control against C. odorata, the plant is not yet under any significant degree of biological control in South Africa and it continues to be a weed of national and international importance.
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Claims 10
Claim · model-written summary
The southern African C. odorata biotype originated in the Greater Antilles.
- Taxon
- C. odorata
Chromolaena odoratae0 - Outcome
- origine0
- Setting
- Greater Antilles in the Caribbeane0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The origin of the southern African C. odorata biotype has been determined as the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean.”
Claim · model-written summary
Neotropical regions climatically similar to the invaded southern African area were identified.
- Taxon
- Chromolaena odorataChromolaena odoratat0
- Outcome
- climatically similare0
- Setting
- Neotropicse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Regions of the Neotropics which are climatically similar to the area invaded by the weed in southern Africa have been identified”
t0“Chromolaena odorata”
Claim · model-written summary
Pareuchaetes insulata established on C. odorata in South Africa, mainly in wet coastal regions.
- Taxon
- C. odorataChromolaena odoratae0
- Interactor
- Pareuchaetes insulata
Pareuchaetes insulatae0biocontrol_agent - Outcome
- have become establishede0
- Setting
- South Africae0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Pareuchaetes insulata (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), which was released in 2001, and Calycomyza eupatorivora Spencer (Diptera: Agromyzidae), released in 2003, have become established on C. odorata in South Africa, primarily in the wetter, coastal regions.”
Claim · model-written summary
Calycomyza eupatorivora established on C. odorata in South Africa, mainly in wet coastal regions.
- Taxon
- C. odorataChromolaena odoratae0
- Interactor
- Calycomyza eupatorivorae0biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- have become establishede0
- Setting
- South Africae0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Calycomyza eupatorivora Spencer (Diptera: Agromyzidae), released in 2003, have become established on C. odorata in South Africa, primarily in the wetter, coastal regions.”
Claim · model-written summary
The established insect agents inflicted sporadic localized damage but insufficient population suppression.
- Taxon
- C. odorataChromolaena odoratae0
- Outcome
- sporadic, localized damagee0
- Qualifier
- insufficient to effect adequate suppressione0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“these agents have inflicted sporadic, localized damage on the weed, it is clear that their impact on C. odorata populations will be insufficient to effect adequate suppression”
Claim · model-written summary
Initial releases of Lixus aemulus were made.
- Taxon
- Chromolaena odorataChromolaena odoratat0
- Interactor
- Lixus aemulusLixus aemuluse0biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- Initial releasese0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Initial releases of a stem-boring weevil, Lixus aemulus Petri (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), have been made”
t0“Chromolaena odorata”
Claim · model-written summary
Host-range testing found Dichrorampha odorata suitable for release.
- Taxon
- Chromolaena odorataChromolaena odoratat0
- Interactor
- Dichrorampha odoratae0biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- suitable for releasee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“host-range testing of the shoot-tip borer Dichrorampha odorata Brown & Zachariades (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) indicates that it is suitable for release.”
t0“Chromolaena odorata”
Claim · model-written summary
Longitarsus sp. was rejected because its host range was wide.
- Taxon
- Chromolaena odorataChromolaena odoratat0
- Interactor
- Longitarsus sp.
Longitarsuse0biocontrol_agent - Outcome
- wide host rangee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The root feeder Longitarsus sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was rejected because it was shown to have a wide host range.”
t0“Chromolaena odorata”
Claim · model-written summary
Pathogens collected for C. odorata control failed to produce symptoms or had insufficient virulence on the southern African biotype.
- Taxon
- Chromolaena odorataChromolaena odoratat0
- Outcome
- failed to produce symptoms or were insufficiently virulente0
- Qualifier
- southern African biotypee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“all pathogens either failed to produce symptoms or were insufficiently virulent on the southern African biotype of the target plant.”
t0“Chromolaena odorata”
Claim · model-written summary
C. odorata was not under significant biological control in South Africa.
- Taxon
- Chromolaena odorataChromolaena odoratat0
- Outcome
- biological controle0
- Direction
- not yet under any significant degreee0
- Setting
- South Africae0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“the plant is not yet under any significant degree of biological control in South Africa”
t0“Chromolaena odorata”