Abstract
To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000. The results show that: (1) natural parasitism in both types of cotton fields gradually increased from 13.3%-14.3% in the second generation to 26.7%-28.2% in the third generation and 60.8%-61.4% in the fourth generation. (2) In the IPM field, a second release of T.chilonis achieved a parasitism rate in the second generation of the cotton bollworms of 46.4%, an increase of 33.1% and 32.1%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt and pesticide fields. In the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis had been released, parasitism of the third generation of cotton bollworms reached 73.7%, similar to that in the IPM field and an increase of 45.5%, 61.8% and 47.0%, respectively, compared to the non-release transgenic field, and the pesticide and control fields. Parasitism of the fourth generation of cotton bollworms was, except for the pesticide field (52.1%), in excess of 60.0% in all other fields. (3) Parasitism in the pesticide field was 5.5% in the second generation and 11.9% in the third generation, a decrease of 8.8% and 14.8%, compared to the transgenic field in which T.chilonis had been released, and 40.9% and 56.2% compared to the IPM field. Releasing T.chilonis one day before using insecticides was associated with a parasitism rate of just 12.5%, while releasing T.chilonis two days after using insecticides was associated with parasitism rates of up to 45.6%. (4) Compared to the IPM field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval and buds and bolls injured per 100 plants in the pesticide field decreased by 74.8% and 73.8%, the total number of predators increased by 63.0%. The total number of cotton bollworm larval, and buds and bolls injured in the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis was released decreased by 61.8% and 33.3%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt field. Compared to the pesticide field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval, buds and bolls injured, and the use of insecticide in the IPM field, decreased by 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0%, while the total number of predators increased by 63.0%. (5) The ratio of predators/phytophagous pests was 0.47 in the non-release transgenic Bt field, 0.30 in the IPM field, 0.24 in the pesticide field. The above results indicate that mass-release of T.chilonis can greatly enhance control of the cotton bollworm in both transgenic and non-transgenic cotton fields.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
Natural parasitism in cotton fields increased over four generations.
- Taxon
- cotton
Gossypium hirsutume1 - Outcome
- natural parasitisme1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Value
- 13.3%-14.3% in the second generation to 26.7%-28.2% in the third generation and 60.8%-61.4% in the fourth generatione1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“natural parasitism in both types of cotton fields gradually increased from 13.3%-14.3% in the second generation to 26.7%-28.2% in the third generation and 60.8%-61.4% in the fourth generation”
Claim · model-written summary
In the IPM field, a second T. chilonis release gave 46.4% parasitism of cotton bollworm in the second generation.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume2
- Treatment
- a second release of T.chilonise2
- Interactor
- cotton bollworms
_gusano_cogollero.png?width=60)
Helicoverpa armigerae2pest - Second interactor
- T.chilonis
_Figure_2b.png?width=60)
Trichogramma chilonise2biocontrol_agent - Outcome
- parasitism rate in the second generation of the cotton bollwormse2
- Value
- 46.4%e2
- Setting
- IPM fielde2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
_gusano_cogollero.png?width=500)
_Figure_2b.png?width=500)
Verbatim
e2“In the IPM field, a second release of T.chilonis achieved a parasitism rate in the second generation of the cotton bollworms of 46.4%, an increase of 33.1% and 32.1%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt and pesticide fields”
Claim · model-written summary
The second T. chilonis release raised parasitism of cotton bollworm by 33.1% over the non-release transgenic Bt field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume2
- Treatment
- a second release of T.chilonise2
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormsHelicoverpa armigerae2pest
- Second interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise2biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- parasitism rate in the second generation of the cotton bollwormse2
- Direction
- increasee2
- Value
- 33.1%e2
- Comparator
- non-release transgenic Bte2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e2“In the IPM field, a second release of T.chilonis achieved a parasitism rate in the second generation of the cotton bollworms of 46.4%, an increase of 33.1% and 32.1%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt and pesticide fields”
Claim · model-written summary
The second T. chilonis release raised parasitism of cotton bollworm by 32.1% over the pesticide field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume2
- Treatment
- a second release of T.chilonise2
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormsHelicoverpa armigerae2pest
- Second interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise2biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- parasitism rate in the second generation of the cotton bollwormse2
- Direction
- increasee2
- Value
- 32.1%e2
- Comparator
- pesticide fieldse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e2“In the IPM field, a second release of T.chilonis achieved a parasitism rate in the second generation of the cotton bollworms of 46.4%, an increase of 33.1% and 32.1%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt and pesticide fields”
Claim · model-written summary
In the transgenic Bt field with T. chilonis release, third-generation parasitism of cotton bollworm reached 73.7%, similar to the IPM field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume3
- Treatment
- T.chilonis had been releasede3
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormsHelicoverpa armigerae3pest
- Second interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise3biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- parasitism of the third generation of cotton bollwormse3
- Value
- 73.7%e3
- Qualifier
- similar to that in the IPM fielde3
- Setting
- transgenic Bt cotton fielde3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“In the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis had been released, parasitism of the third generation of cotton bollworms reached 73.7%, similar to that in the IPM field and an increase of 45.5%, 61.8% and 47.0%, respectively, compared to the non-release transgenic field, and the pesticide and control fields”
Claim · model-written summary
The transgenic Bt field with T. chilonis release gained 45.5% third-generation parasitism over the non-release transgenic field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume3
- Treatment
- T.chilonis had been releasede3
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormsHelicoverpa armigerae3pest
- Second interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise3biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- parasitism of the third generation of cotton bollwormse3
- Direction
- increasee3
- Value
- 45.5%e3
- Comparator
- non-release transgenic fielde3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“In the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis had been released, parasitism of the third generation of cotton bollworms reached 73.7%, similar to that in the IPM field and an increase of 45.5%, 61.8% and 47.0%, respectively, compared to the non-release transgenic field, and the pesticide and control fields”
Claim · model-written summary
The transgenic Bt field with T. chilonis release gained 61.8% and 47.0% third-generation parasitism over the pesticide and control fields.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume3
- Treatment
- T.chilonis had been releasede3
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormsHelicoverpa armigerae3pest
- Second interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise3biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- parasitism of the third generation of cotton bollwormse3
- Direction
- increasee3
- Value
- 61.8% and 47.0%e3
- Comparator
- pesticide and control fieldse3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“In the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis had been released, parasitism of the third generation of cotton bollworms reached 73.7%, similar to that in the IPM field and an increase of 45.5%, 61.8% and 47.0%, respectively, compared to the non-release transgenic field, and the pesticide and control fields”
Claim · model-written summary
Fourth-generation parasitism of cotton bollworm exceeded 60.0% in all fields except the pesticide field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume4
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormsHelicoverpa armigerae4pest
- Outcome
- Parasitism of the fourth generation of cotton bollwormse4
- Value
- 60.0%e4
- Qualifier
- except for the pesticide field (52.1%)e4
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e4“Parasitism of the fourth generation of cotton bollworms was, except for the pesticide field (52.1%), in excess of 60.0% in all other fields”
Claim · model-written summary
Parasitism in the pesticide field was 5.5% in the second generation and 11.9% in the third generation.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume0
- Outcome
- Parasitisme4
- Value
- 5.5% in the second generation and 11.9% in the third generatione4
- Setting
- pesticide fielde4
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e4“Parasitism of the fourth generation of cotton bollworms was, except for the pesticide field (52.1%), in excess of 60.0% in all other fields. (3) Parasitism in the pesticide field was 5.5% in the second generation and 11.9% in the third generation, a decrease of 8.8% and 14.8%, compared to the transgenic field in which T.chilonis had been released, and 40.9% and 56.2% compared to the IPM field”
Claim · model-written summary
The pesticide field had 8.8% and 14.8% lower parasitism than the transgenic field with T. chilonis release.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume0
- Treatment
- chemical pesticidese0
- Interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise4biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- Parasitisme4
- Direction
- decreasee4
- Value
- 8.8% and 14.8%e4
- Comparator
- transgenic field in which T.chilonis had been releasede4
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e4“Parasitism of the fourth generation of cotton bollworms was, except for the pesticide field (52.1%), in excess of 60.0% in all other fields. (3) Parasitism in the pesticide field was 5.5% in the second generation and 11.9% in the third generation, a decrease of 8.8% and 14.8%, compared to the transgenic field in which T.chilonis had been released, and 40.9% and 56.2% compared to the IPM field”
Claim · model-written summary
The pesticide field had 40.9% and 56.2% lower parasitism than the IPM field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume0
- Treatment
- chemical pesticidese0
- Interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise4biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- Parasitisme4
- Direction
- decreasee4
- Value
- 40.9% and 56.2%e4
- Comparator
- IPM fielde4
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e4“Parasitism of the fourth generation of cotton bollworms was, except for the pesticide field (52.1%), in excess of 60.0% in all other fields. (3) Parasitism in the pesticide field was 5.5% in the second generation and 11.9% in the third generation, a decrease of 8.8% and 14.8%, compared to the transgenic field in which T.chilonis had been released, and 40.9% and 56.2% compared to the IPM field”
Claim · model-written summary
Releasing T. chilonis one day before insecticide use gave 12.5% parasitism.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume0
- Treatment
- Releasing T.chilonis one day before using insecticidese5
- Interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise5biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- parasitism ratee5
- Value
- 12.5%e5
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e5“Releasing T.chilonis one day before using insecticides was associated with a parasitism rate of just 12.5%, while releasing T.chilonis two days after using insecticides was associated with parasitism rates of up to 45.6%”
Claim · model-written summary
Releasing T. chilonis two days after insecticide use gave up to 45.6% parasitism.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume0
- Treatment
- releasing T.chilonis two days after using insecticidese5
- Interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise5biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- parasitism ratese5
- Value
- up to 45.6%e5
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e5“Releasing T.chilonis one day before using insecticides was associated with a parasitism rate of just 12.5%, while releasing T.chilonis two days after using insecticides was associated with parasitism rates of up to 45.6%”
Claim · model-written summary
The pesticide field decreased cotton bollworm larval and bud and boll injury by 74.8% and 73.8% relative to the IPM field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume6
- Treatment
- chemical pesticidese0
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormHelicoverpa armigerae6pest
- Outcome
- cotton bollworm larval and buds and bolls injured per 100 plantse6
- Direction
- decreasede6
- Value
- 74.8% and 73.8%e6
- Comparator
- IPM fielde6
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e6“(4) Compared to the IPM field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval and buds and bolls injured per 100 plants in the pesticide field decreased by 74.8% and 73.8%, the total number of predators increased by 63.0%”
Claim · model-written summary
The pesticide field increased predators by 63.0% relative to the IPM field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume6
- Treatment
- chemical pesticidese0
- Interactor
- predatorse6biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- total number of predatorse6
- Direction
- increasede6
- Value
- 63.0%e6
- Comparator
- IPM fielde6
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e6“(4) Compared to the IPM field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval and buds and bolls injured per 100 plants in the pesticide field decreased by 74.8% and 73.8%, the total number of predators increased by 63.0%”
Claim · model-written summary
The transgenic Bt field with T. chilonis release decreased cotton bollworm injury by 61.8% and 33.3% relative to the non-release transgenic Bt field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume7
- Treatment
- T.chilonis was releasede7
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormHelicoverpa armigerae7pest
- Second interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise7biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- cotton bollworm larval, and buds and bolls injurede7
- Direction
- decreasede7
- Value
- 61.8% and 33.3%e7
- Comparator
- non-release transgenic Bt fielde7
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e7“The total number of cotton bollworm larval, and buds and bolls injured in the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis was released decreased by 61.8% and 33.3%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt field. Compared to the pesticide field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval, buds and bolls injured, and the use of insecticide in the IPM field, decreased by 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0%, while the total number of predators increased by 63.0%. (5) The ratio of predators/phytophagous pests was 0.47 in the non-release transgenic Bt field, 0.30 in the IPM field, 0.24 in the pesticide field. The above results indicate that mass-release of T.chilonis can greatly enhance control of the cotton bollworm in both transgenic and non-transgenic cotton fields”
Claim · model-written summary
The predator to phytophagous pest ratio was 0.47 in the non-release transgenic Bt field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume0
- Interactor
- phytophagous pestse7pest
- Second interactor
- predatorse7biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- ratio of predators/phytophagous pestse7
- Value
- 0.47e7
- Qualifier
- 0.30 in the IPM field, 0.24 in the pesticide fielde7
- Setting
- non-release transgenic Bt fielde7
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“To understand the ecological effects of mass-releasing Trichogramma chilonis in cotton fields, the biological control effects of this parasite were examined in two transgenic Bt cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released and one in which it had not; and three non-transgenic cotton fields: one in which T.chilonis had been released in conjunction with chemical pesticides (IPM field), one with chemical pesticides only (chemically controlled field), and a natural control field as the control (no T.chilonis release or pesticides), in Nanpi County, Hebei Province, 1998-2000”
e7“The total number of cotton bollworm larval, and buds and bolls injured in the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis was released decreased by 61.8% and 33.3%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt field. Compared to the pesticide field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval, buds and bolls injured, and the use of insecticide in the IPM field, decreased by 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0%, while the total number of predators increased by 63.0%. (5) The ratio of predators/phytophagous pests was 0.47 in the non-release transgenic Bt field, 0.30 in the IPM field, 0.24 in the pesticide field. The above results indicate that mass-release of T.chilonis can greatly enhance control of the cotton bollworm in both transgenic and non-transgenic cotton fields”
Claim · model-written summary
Mass release of T. chilonis can greatly enhance control of cotton bollworm in both transgenic and non-transgenic cotton fields.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume7
- Treatment
- mass-release of T.chilonise7
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormHelicoverpa armigerae7pest
- Second interactor
- T.chilonisTrichogramma chilonise7biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- control of the cotton bollworme7
- Direction
- enhancee7
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e7“The total number of cotton bollworm larval, and buds and bolls injured in the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis was released decreased by 61.8% and 33.3%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt field. Compared to the pesticide field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval, buds and bolls injured, and the use of insecticide in the IPM field, decreased by 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0%, while the total number of predators increased by 63.0%. (5) The ratio of predators/phytophagous pests was 0.47 in the non-release transgenic Bt field, 0.30 in the IPM field, 0.24 in the pesticide field. The above results indicate that mass-release of T.chilonis can greatly enhance control of the cotton bollworm in both transgenic and non-transgenic cotton fields”
Claim · model-written summary
The IPM field decreased cotton bollworm injury by 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0% (injury and insecticide use) relative to the pesticide field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume7
- Treatment
- IPMe7
- Interactor
- cotton bollwormHelicoverpa armigerae7pest
- Outcome
- cotton bollworm larval, buds and bolls injurede7
- Direction
- decreasede7
- Value
- 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0%e7
- Comparator
- pesticide fielde7
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e7“The total number of cotton bollworm larval, and buds and bolls injured in the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis was released decreased by 61.8% and 33.3%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt field. Compared to the pesticide field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval, buds and bolls injured, and the use of insecticide in the IPM field, decreased by 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0%, while the total number of predators increased by 63.0%. (5) The ratio of predators/phytophagous pests was 0.47 in the non-release transgenic Bt field, 0.30 in the IPM field, 0.24 in the pesticide field. The above results indicate that mass-release of T.chilonis can greatly enhance control of the cotton bollworm in both transgenic and non-transgenic cotton fields”
Claim · model-written summary
The IPM field increased predators by 63.0% relative to the pesticide field.
- Taxon
- cottonGossypium hirsutume7
- Treatment
- IPMe7
- Interactor
- predatorse7biocontrol_agent
- Outcome
- total number of predatorse7
- Direction
- increasede7
- Value
- 63.0%e7
- Comparator
- pesticide fielde7
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e7“The total number of cotton bollworm larval, and buds and bolls injured in the transgenic Bt cotton field in which T.chilonis was released decreased by 61.8% and 33.3%, compared to the non-release transgenic Bt field. Compared to the pesticide field, the total number of cotton bollworm larval, buds and bolls injured, and the use of insecticide in the IPM field, decreased by 29.7%, 43.4% and 60.0%, while the total number of predators increased by 63.0%. (5) The ratio of predators/phytophagous pests was 0.47 in the non-release transgenic Bt field, 0.30 in the IPM field, 0.24 in the pesticide field. The above results indicate that mass-release of T.chilonis can greatly enhance control of the cotton bollworm in both transgenic and non-transgenic cotton fields”
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See all 5 papers →Claims are grouped by organism, treatment and what was measured or targeted. A paper counts as positive when any of its claims in the group is positive.