Abstract
Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. is an endangered tree species that is cherished worldwide for its valuable deep red-colored heartwood, which has multiple uses. This species exhibits a wide range of medicinal properties and offers immense potential for the discovery of bioactive compounds of pharmacological importance. The overharvesting of this species for heartwood has led to a gradual decline in its natural populations, thereby depleting its genetic resources and contributing to the loss of genetic diversity. Therefore, it is essential to assess genetic diversity, as such information allows for the effective conservation and utilization of genetic resources. In the present study, the genetic diversity and population structure among 40 germplasm accessions originating from 8 populations of P. santalinus were analyzed using six cross-species simple sequence repeats (SSR), 20 each of inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. SSR markers revealed higher polymorphism (100 %), followed by ISSRs (82.81 %) and RAPDs (67.50 %), across all the accessions. The mean values of the polymorphic information content (PIC), effective multiplex ratio (EMR), and marker index (MI) were higher for SSRs (0.84, 9.17, and 7.7), followed by ISSRs (0.262, 4.474, and 1.251) and RAPDs (0.204, 3.268 and 0.970, respectively), indicating the superiority of SSRs in detecting polymorphisms in red sanders. Similarly, the estimates of Nei's gene diversity (H) and Shannon's information index (I) varied across the studied accessions, with the highest values for SSRs ( H = 0.528, I = 0.923), followed by ISSRs ( H = 0.287, I = 0.428) and RAPDs ( H = 0.206, I = 0.307). However, the genetic statistic (Gst) or fixation statistic (Fst) and gene flow (Nm) values were higher for RAPDs (0.455 and 0.598) and ISSRs (0.446 and 0.620) than for SSRs (0.383 and 0.489, respectively), indicating significant genetic differentiation of the populations and moderate gene flow among the populations. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) with SSR, ISSR, and RAPD markers revealed that a greater proportion of genetic variation resided within populations (74 %, 69 %, and 66 %, respectively) than among populations (26 %, 31 %, and 34 %, respectively). Hierarchical clustering on the basis of RAPDs grouped most of the accessions according to the population of origin; however, this clustering was different for the ISSR and SSR markers. STRUCTURE analysis divided the accessions into four, two, and three groups with SSR, ISSR, and RAPD markers, respectively, with admixtures detected in all the groups pointing toward shared genetic lineages and diverse genetic ancestry among the accessions of different populations. Overall, the populations of Gumudipoondi of Tamil Nadu and K.V. Bhavi of Andhra Pradesh were genetically more diverse than other populations, as revealed by genetic diversity estimates obtained with SSR and ISSR marker systems; therefore, the accessions of these populations must be prioritized for conservation and utilization in breeding programs for genetic improvement.
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Claims 14
Claim · model-written summary
SSR markers showed 100 % polymorphism, higher than ISSR and RAPD markers.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.
Pterocarpus santalinust0 - Outcome
- polymorphisme0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 100 %e0
- Comparator
- ISSRse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“SSR markers revealed higher polymorphism (100 %), followed by ISSRs (82.81 %) and RAPDs (67.50 %)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
ISSR markers showed 82.81 % polymorphism.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- polymorphisme0
- Value
- 82.81 %e0
- Qualifier
- ISSRse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“SSR markers revealed higher polymorphism (100 %), followed by ISSRs (82.81 %) and RAPDs (67.50 %)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
RAPD markers showed 67.50 % polymorphism.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- polymorphisme0
- Value
- 67.50 %e0
- Qualifier
- RAPDse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“SSR markers revealed higher polymorphism (100 %), followed by ISSRs (82.81 %) and RAPDs (67.50 %)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
SSR markers had the highest mean PIC, EMR, and MI values.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- polymorphic information content (PIC), effective multiplex ratio (EMR), and marker index (MI)e0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 0.84, 9.17, and 7.7e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The mean values of the polymorphic information content (PIC), effective multiplex ratio (EMR), and marker index (MI) were higher for SSRs (0.84, 9.17, and 7.7)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
ISSR marker means for PIC, EMR, and MI were 0.262, 4.474, and 1.251.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- ISSRse0
- Value
- 0.262, 4.474, and 1.251e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“ISSRs (0.262, 4.474, and 1.251)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
RAPD marker means for PIC, EMR, and MI were 0.204, 3.268, and 0.970.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- RAPDse0
- Value
- 0.204, 3.268 and 0.970e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“RAPDs (0.204, 3.268 and 0.970, respectively)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
SSR estimates of Nei diversity and Shannon index were highest.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- Nei's gene diversity (H) and Shannon's information index (I)e0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Value
- H = 0.528, I = 0.923e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“the estimates of Nei's gene diversity (H) and Shannon's information index (I) varied across the studied accessions, with the highest values for SSRs ( H = 0.528, I = 0.923)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
RAPD and ISSR markers gave higher differentiation and gene flow statistics than SSR markers.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- genetic statistic (Gst) or fixation statistic (Fst) and gene flow (Nm)e0
- Direction
- highere0
- Comparator
- SSRse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“genetic statistic (Gst) or fixation statistic (Fst) and gene flow (Nm) values were higher for RAPDs (0.455 and 0.598) and ISSRs (0.446 and 0.620) than for SSRs (0.383 and 0.489, respectively)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
More genetic variation occurred within than among populations across all three marker systems.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- genetic variatione0
- Direction
- greatere0
- Comparator
- among populationse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“a greater proportion of genetic variation resided within populations (74 %, 69 %, and 66 %, respectively) than among populations (26 %, 31 %, and 34 %, respectively)”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
RAPD clustering largely followed population of origin, unlike ISSR and SSR clustering.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- grouped most of the accessions according to the population of origine0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Hierarchical clustering on the basis of RAPDs grouped most of the accessions according to the population of origin; however, this clustering was different for the ISSR and SSR markers”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
STRUCTURE separated accessions into four, two, and three groups with SSR, ISSR, and RAPD markers, respectively.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- divided the accessions into four, two, and three groupse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“STRUCTURE analysis divided the accessions into four, two, and three groups with SSR, ISSR, and RAPD markers, respectively, with admixtures detected in all the groups”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
Admixture was detected in all inferred groups.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- admixtures detected in all the groupse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“admixtures detected in all the groups pointing toward shared genetic lineages and diverse genetic ancestry among the accessions of different populations”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
Gumudipoondi and K.V. Bhavi populations were more genetically diverse than other populations.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- genetically more diversee0
- Direction
- more diversee0
- Setting
- Tamil Nadue0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“the populations of Gumudipoondi of Tamil Nadu and K.V. Bhavi of Andhra Pradesh were genetically more diverse than other populations”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”
Claim · model-written summary
The authors recommend prioritizing Gumudipoondi and K.V. Bhavi accessions for conservation and breeding.
- Taxon
- Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.Pterocarpus santalinust0
- Outcome
- prioritized for conservation and utilization in breeding programs for genetic improvemente0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“the accessions of these populations must be prioritized for conservation and utilization in breeding programs for genetic improvement”
t0“Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.”