Abstract
Estimates of fruit surface area are often required in physiological and technological studies. The objective was to establish a procedure to accurately quantify the fruit surface area based on Archimedean buoyancy measurements. The setup comprised a fixed, linear stepper motor mounted with its spindle vertical and aligned directly above the pan of an electronic balance. A fruit was clamped to the motor spindle and a beaker of water rested on the balance pan. When the motor was activated, the fruit was progressively immersed, stepwise, in the water. Each vertical displacement step increased the buoyant upthrust on the fruit, which was opposed by a corresponding increase in the downthrust on the balance. Pairs of the step displacement length (mm) and corresponding buoyancy increment (g) values were recorded in an MS Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, WA) spreadsheet using Arduino components. Each displacement step immersed another “virtual slice” of the fruit in the water. From each pair of known displacement–buoyancy measurements, the volume (mL) of that slice could be calculated with high precision based on the known density of the liquid (g·mL −1 ). With the fruit orientated so that its morphological “long” axis was vertical, for most fruitcrop species, the slice can be assumed to have a circular cross-section. Hence, the slice can be analyzed geometrically as a truncated cone of known height (mm) and known volume (mL). Therefore, the surface area of its outer face is calculable. The surface area of the whole fruit was calculated as the cumulative total of the surface areas of all steps (virtual slices). The procedure was evaluated and calibrated using stainless-steel spheres in place of the fruit. However, the measured surface area was slightly greater than that calculated for a sphere. The calculated and measured areas did not differ by more than 1.7%. The surface area determinations were highly reproducible ( cv = 0.95%). The magnitude of the displacement steps affected the variability of the surface area measurements. Increasing the step displacements decreased the measurement variability, but there were no significant effects on the surface area measurements of the surface tension of the liquid or of the wettability of the surface of the fruit or the stainless-steel subject. Using stainless-steel spheres (diameter, 5–60 mm) or rubber truncated cones (mean diameter, 8–45 mm) revealed an excellent agreement between the measured and calculated surface areas. Using tomatoes, grapes, blueberries, and strawberries, the measured surface areas were in excellent agreement with those calculated from the fruit dimensions and appropriate geometrical assumptions. The results demonstrate that the surface areas of fruit with approximately circular cross-sections normal to their morphological axes can be determined with high accuracy and reproducibility using Archimedean buoyancy.
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Claims 12
Claim · model-written summary
Measured sphere surface area was slightly greater than calculated area.
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e0“the measured surface area was slightly greater than that calculated for a sphere.”
Claim · model-written summary
Measured and calculated sphere areas differed by at most 1.7%.
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e0“The calculated and measured areas did not differ by more than 1.7%.”
Claim · model-written summary
Fruit surface area measurements were highly reproducible with cv 0.95%.
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e0“The surface area determinations were highly reproducible ( cv = 0.95%).”
Claim · model-written summary
Increasing displacement steps decreased measurement variability.
Not reportedTaxonComparator
Verbatim
e0“Increasing the step displacements decreased the measurement variability”
Claim · model-written summary
Liquid surface tension did not significantly affect surface area measurements.
- Treatment
- surface tension of the liquide0
- Outcome
- surface area measurementse0
- Direction
- no significant effectse0
Not reportedTaxonComparator
Verbatim
e0“there were no significant effects on the surface area measurements of the surface tension of the liquid”
Claim · model-written summary
Subject wettability did not significantly affect surface area measurements.
- Treatment
- wettability of the surface of the fruit or the stainless-steel subjecte0
- Outcome
- surface area measurementse0
- Direction
- no significant effectse0
Not reportedTaxonComparator
Verbatim
e0“there were no significant effects on the surface area measurements of the surface tension of the liquid or of the wettability of the surface of the fruit or the stainless-steel subject.”
Claim · model-written summary
Measured and calculated surface areas agreed excellently for stainless-steel spheres.
- Outcome
- measured and calculated surface arease0
- Qualifier
- excellent agreemente0
- Comparator
- stainless-steel spherese0
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e0“Using stainless-steel spheres (diameter, 5–60 mm) or rubber truncated cones (mean diameter, 8–45 mm) revealed an excellent agreement between the measured and calculated surface areas.”
Claim · model-written summary
Measured and calculated surface areas agreed excellently for rubber truncated cones.
- Outcome
- measured and calculated surface arease0
- Qualifier
- excellent agreemente0
- Comparator
- rubber truncated conese0
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e0“Using stainless-steel spheres (diameter, 5–60 mm) or rubber truncated cones (mean diameter, 8–45 mm) revealed an excellent agreement between the measured and calculated surface areas.”
Claim · model-written summary
Measured tomato surface areas agreed excellently with geometric estimates.
- Taxon
- tomatoes
Solanum lycopersicume0 - Outcome
- measured surface arease0
- Comparator
- those calculated from the fruit dimensions and appropriate geometrical assumptionse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Using tomatoes, grapes, blueberries, and strawberries, the measured surface areas were in excellent agreement with those calculated from the fruit dimensions and appropriate geometrical assumptions.”
Claim · model-written summary
Measured grape surface areas agreed excellently with geometric estimates.
Verbatim
e0“Using tomatoes, grapes, blueberries, and strawberries, the measured surface areas were in excellent agreement with those calculated from the fruit dimensions and appropriate geometrical assumptions.”
Claim · model-written summary
Measured blueberry surface areas agreed excellently with geometric estimates.
Verbatim
e0“Using tomatoes, grapes, blueberries, and strawberries, the measured surface areas were in excellent agreement with those calculated from the fruit dimensions and appropriate geometrical assumptions.”
Claim · model-written summary
Measured strawberry surface areas agreed excellently with geometric estimates.
- Taxon
- strawberries
_single2.jpg?width=60)
Fragaria ×ananassae0 - Outcome
- measured surface arease0
- Comparator
- those calculated from the fruit dimensions and appropriate geometrical assumptionse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
_single2.jpg?width=500)
Verbatim
e0“Using tomatoes, grapes, blueberries, and strawberries, the measured surface areas were in excellent agreement with those calculated from the fruit dimensions and appropriate geometrical assumptions.”