Abstract
ABSTRACT Urbanization is a major human‐mediated driver of environmental change. Plants in urban environments may differ in timing and investment in key life history traits compared to rural plants as a result of genetic differentiation or plastic responses to the urban environment. However, it is unclear for many species whether genetic differentiation or plasticity has shaped urban phenotypes. Impatiens capensis is an annual plant that produces self‐pollinating and outcrossing flowers, varying in timing and amount based on environmental conditions. In this study, we characterized differences in floral phenology, mating system allocation, and key life history events between urban and rural populations of I. capensis , in situ and in greenhouse common gardens. We asked whether (1) floral investment varies with urbanization in situ, if (2) the differences between urban and rural populations are maintained (genetic differentiation) or lost/exaggerated (plasticity) in a common garden, if (3) differences can be attributed to shifts in life history strategy, and if (4) urban population traits are more variable (higher coefficient of variation). In situ, we found that urban populations advanced flowering time and invested more in outcrossing flowers compared to rural populations. Within greenhouse common gardens, urban plants maintained advanced flowering and were less variable than rural plants (low CV), indicative of genetic differentiation. In contrast, urban plants lost outcrossing bias in mating system allocation observed in situ, indicating plasticity, although both urban and rural plants were highly variable (high CV) for this trait. Early onset of selfing flowers was tied to earlier germination, but outcrossing onset was not affected by germination time. Flowering probability in urban plants was higher than rural ones in common gardens. Our study demonstrates that urbanization influences plant phenotypes through both genetic differentiation and phenotypic plasticity, but the relative importance of the two mechanisms of change vary among floral traits.
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Claims 9
Claim · model-written summary
Urban populations flowered earlier in situ than rural populations.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensis
Impatiens capensist0 - Outcome
- flowering timee0
- Direction
- advancede0
- Comparator
- rural populationse0
- Setting
- In situe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In situ, we found that urban populations advanced flowering time and invested more in outcrossing flowers compared to rural populations.”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Urban populations invested more in outcrossing flowers in situ.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Outcome
- outcrossing flowerse0
- Direction
- moree0
- Comparator
- rural populationse0
- Setting
- In situe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In situ, we found that urban populations advanced flowering time and invested more in outcrossing flowers compared to rural populations.”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Urban plants maintained advanced flowering in greenhouse common gardens.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Outcome
- floweringe0
- Direction
- advancede0
- Comparator
- rural plantse0
- Setting
- greenhouse common gardense0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Within greenhouse common gardens, urban plants maintained advanced flowering and were less variable than rural plants (low CV), indicative of genetic differentiation.”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Urban plants were less variable than rural plants in greenhouse common gardens.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Outcome
- variablee0
- Direction
- less variablee0
- Comparator
- rural plantse0
- Setting
- greenhouse common gardense0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Within greenhouse common gardens, urban plants maintained advanced flowering and were less variable than rural plants (low CV), indicative of genetic differentiation.”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Urban plants lost their in situ outcrossing bias in common gardens.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Outcome
- outcrossing bias in mating system allocatione0
- Direction
- loste0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“urban plants lost outcrossing bias in mating system allocation observed in situ, indicating plasticity”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Urban and rural plants were both highly variable in mating system allocation.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Outcome
- variablee0
- Direction
- highly variablee0
- Qualifier
- both urban and rural plantse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“although both urban and rural plants were highly variable (high CV) for this trait.”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Earlier germination was associated with earlier onset of selfing flowers.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Organ / stage
- germinatione0
- Outcome
- onset of selfing flowerse0
- Direction
- Earlye0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Early onset of selfing flowers was tied to earlier germination”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Germination time did not affect outcrossing onset.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Organ / stage
- germination timee0
- Outcome
- outcrossing onsete0
- Direction
- not affectede0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“outcrossing onset was not affected by germination time.”
t0“Impatiens capensis”
Claim · model-written summary
Urban plants had higher flowering probability than rural plants in common gardens.
- Taxon
- Impatiens capensisImpatiens capensist0
- Outcome
- Flowering probabilitye0
- Direction
- highere0
- Comparator
- rural onese0
- Setting
- common gardense0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Flowering probability in urban plants was higher than rural ones in common gardens.”
t0“Impatiens capensis”