Abstract
• Foliar Se-NPs improved cowpea growth and yield under salinity stress. • Se-NPs enhanced photosynthesis, water status, and antioxidant defenses. • Optimal 1.0 mM Se-NPs increased NPK uptake and reduced Na + accumulation. • Se-NPs boosted osmoprotectants and phenolics, enhancing ROS scavenging. • Leaf anatomy improved with Se-NPs, supporting photosynthesis and resilience. Soil salinity is a significant constraint to cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata L.) productivity, impairing growth, physiology, antioxidant defense, and yield. The present study evaluated the potential of foliar-applied selenium nanoparticles (Se-NPs) to improve salt tolerance in cowpea grown under saline field conditions [electric conductivity (EC) = 7.55–7.61 dS m -1 ; equivalent to moderate salinity levels] during two consecutive summer seasons (2023 and 2024). Plants were treated with 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5 mM Se-NPs at 25, 40, and 55 days after sowing. Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls. The 1.0 mM treatment produced the most significant improvements, increasing plant height (49%), biomass (49%), pod number (125%), 100-seed weight (27%), and seed yield (50%). Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content, while stimulating antioxidant defense through higher enzymatic (catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase) and non-enzymatic (ascorbate, glutathione, α-tocopherol) antioxidants, as well as osmoprotectants (proline and soluble sugars). Moreover, Se-NPs enhanced leaf nutrient uptake [nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (K)], reduced sodium (Na⁺) accumulation, and improved the K⁺/Na⁺ ratio, thereby minimizing oxidative damage (malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide, and electrolyte leakage). Secondary metabolites, including phenolics, flavonoids, and flavonols, also increased, which supports their radical scavenging activity. Anatomical modifications in Se-NP–treated plants, such as thicker mesophyll tissues, larger vascular bundles, and wider xylem vessels, further contributed to improved photosynthesis and stress resilience. Overall, foliar Se-NPs, particularly at 1.0 mM, effectively mitigated salinity stress and enhanced productivity, representing a promising biostimulant for sustainable cowpea cultivation in salt-affected soils.
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Claims 14
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 1.0 mM Se-NPs increased plant height by 49%.
- Taxon
- cowpea
Vigna unguiculatat0 - Treatment
- 1.0 mMe0
- Outcome
- plant heighte0
- Direction
- increasinge0
- Value
- 49%e0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The 1.0 mM treatment produced the most significant improvements, increasing plant height (49%), biomass (49%), pod number (125%), 100-seed weight (27%), and seed yield (50%).”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 1.0 mM Se-NPs increased biomass by 49%.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- 1.0 mMe0
- Outcome
- biomasse0
- Direction
- increasinge0
- Value
- 49%e0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The 1.0 mM treatment produced the most significant improvements, increasing plant height (49%), biomass (49%), pod number (125%), 100-seed weight (27%), and seed yield (50%).”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 1.0 mM Se-NPs increased pod number by 125%.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- 1.0 mMe0
- Outcome
- pod numbere0
- Direction
- increasinge0
- Value
- 125%e0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The 1.0 mM treatment produced the most significant improvements, increasing plant height (49%), biomass (49%), pod number (125%), 100-seed weight (27%), and seed yield (50%).”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 1.0 mM Se-NPs increased 100-seed weight by 27%.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- 1.0 mMe0
- Outcome
- 100-seed weighte0
- Direction
- increasinge0
- Value
- 27%e0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The 1.0 mM treatment produced the most significant improvements, increasing plant height (49%), biomass (49%), pod number (125%), 100-seed weight (27%), and seed yield (50%).”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 1.0 mM Se-NPs increased seed yield by 50%.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- 1.0 mMe0
- Outcome
- seed yielde0
- Direction
- increasinge0
- Value
- 50%e0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The 1.0 mM treatment produced the most significant improvements, increasing plant height (49%), biomass (49%), pod number (125%), 100-seed weight (27%), and seed yield (50%).”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse0
- Outcome
- photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water contente0
- Direction
- enhancede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs higher enzymatic (catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase) and non-enzymatic (ascorbate, glutathione, α-tocopherol) antioxidants.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse1
- Outcome
- enzymatic (catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase) and non-enzymatic (ascorbate, glutathione, α-tocopherol) antioxidantse0
- Direction
- highere0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“while stimulating antioxidant defense through higher enzymatic (catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase) and non-enzymatic (ascorbate, glutathione, α-tocopherol) antioxidants”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
e2“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs higher osmoprotectants (proline and soluble sugars).
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse1
- Outcome
- osmoprotectants (proline and soluble sugars)e0
- Direction
- highere3
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“as well as osmoprotectants (proline and soluble sugars)”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
e2“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
e3“while stimulating antioxidant defense through higher enzymatic (catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase) and non-enzymatic (ascorbate, glutathione, α-tocopherol) antioxidants”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs enhanced leaf nutrient uptake [nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (K)].
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse0
- Outcome
- leaf nutrient uptake [nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (K)]e0
- Direction
- enhancede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Se-NPs enhanced leaf nutrient uptake [nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (K)]”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs reduced sodium (Na⁺) accumulation.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse1
- Outcome
- sodium (Na⁺) accumulatione0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“reduced sodium (Na⁺) accumulation”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
e2“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs improved K⁺/Na⁺ ratio.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse1
- Outcome
- K⁺/Na⁺ ratioe0
- Direction
- improvede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“improved the K⁺/Na⁺ ratio”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
e2“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs minimizing oxidative damage (malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide, and electrolyte leakage).
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse1
- Outcome
- oxidative damage (malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide, and electrolyte leakage)e0
- Direction
- minimizinge0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“thereby minimizing oxidative damage (malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide, and electrolyte leakage)”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
e2“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs increased phenolics, flavonoids, and flavonols.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse1
- Outcome
- phenolics, flavonoids, and flavonolse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Secondary metabolites, including phenolics, flavonoids, and flavonols, also increased”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
e2“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
Claim · model-written summary
Se-NPs improved thicker mesophyll tissues, larger vascular bundles, and wider xylem vessels.
- Taxon
- cowpeaVigna unguiculatat0
- Treatment
- Se-NPse1
- Outcome
- thicker mesophyll tissues, larger vascular bundles, and wider xylem vesselse0
- Direction
- improvede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Anatomical modifications in Se-NP–treated plants, such as thicker mesophyll tissues, larger vascular bundles, and wider xylem vessels, further contributed to improved photosynthesis and stress resilience”
t0“cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)”
e1“Se-NPs also enhanced photosynthetic pigments, efficiency, and relative water content”
e2“Foliar application of Se-NPs significantly ( P <0.05) enhanced growth, physiology, and yield compared with untreated controls.”
The same questions in other papers
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1 in the opposite direction
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selenium atom · nutrient: content · Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)Results agree
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nanoparticle · physiology: osmolytes · Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)Results agree
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nanoparticle · quality: phytochemicals · Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)Results agree
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nanoparticle · physiology: photosynthesis · Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)Results agree
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8 of 11 groups shown: named compounds and organisms first, then groups whose results differ (checked claim by claim), then those with positive and negative results, then the smaller groups.
Claims are grouped by organism, treatment and what was measured or targeted. A paper counts as positive when any of its claims in the group is positive.