Abstract
• Biochar–nitrogen interactions exhibited strong soil texture dependency, governing wheat yield responses and patterns of downward nitrogen redistribution under semi-arid condition. • In sandy loam soils, higher biochar rates combined with urea enhanced grain yield but were associated with increased sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N values, indicating greater downward nitrogen mobility beyond the effective rooting zone. • In silty clay loam soils, moderate biochar application (≈40 t ha −1 ) combined with ammonium nitrate provided a balanced agronomic–environmental outcome, improving nitrogen use efficiency while limiting downward nitrogen redistribution. • Grain yield was strongly correlated with dry matter accumulation (r = 0.93 ** ), whereas sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N values showed negative associations with grain yield and protein concentration, highlighting nitrogen use efficiency as a central integrative mechanism. • ASPIM-Wheat and HYDRUS-2D reproduced crop growth dynamics across soil textures but showed systematic bias in simulating downward nitrogen redistribution, particularly across biochar rate gradients. • The results emphasize that soil-specific integration of biochar rate and nitrogen fertilizer source, rather than universal application strategies, is essential for enhancing productivity while moderating environmental risk in semi-arid wheat systems. This multi-year field–modeling study examined the interactive effects of biochar application and nitrogen fertilizer source on wheat productivity and downward nitrogen redistribution, assessed using a sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N indicator (80–100 cm), across three contrasting soil textures (sandy loam, silty clay loam, and silty clay) under semi-arid conditions. Field experiments were conducted over three consecutive growing seasons using a uniform nitrogen rate (60 kg N ha −1 ) supplied as either ammonium nitrate (AN) or urea (NN), combined with three biochar application rates (20, 40, and 80 t ha −1 ) applied once at the beginning of the experiment. Results revealed strong soil texture dependency in both agronomic and nitrogen-redistribution responses. In sandy loam soils, grain yield and biomass showed high responsiveness to biochar–nitrogen co-application, particularly under higher biochar rates combined with urea; however, these gains were accompanied by elevated sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N values, indicating increased downward nitrogen mobility beyond the effective rooting zone. In contrast, silty clay loam and silty clay soils exhibited greater intrinsic buffering capacity, with moderate biochar application (≈40 t ha −1 ) combined with ammonium nitrate providing a more balanced outcome by enhancing nitrogen use efficiency while limiting downward nitrogen redistribution. Statistical analyses confirmed significant main and interaction effects of year, biochar rate, fertilizer source, and soil texture (p < 0.05). Correlation analysis demonstrated a strong positive relationship between grain yield and dry matter (r = 0.93 ** ), alongside negative associations between sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N values, grain yield, and grain protein concentration, highlighting nitrogen use efficiency as a key integrative mechanism linking agronomic performance and nitrogen redistribution. Integrated simulations using APSIM-Wheat and HYDRUS-2D reproduced crop growth dynamics across soil textures but exhibited systematic bias in simulating downward nitrogen redistribution, with overestimation at low biochar rates and underestimation at higher rates. These discrepancies likely reflect structural limitations in representing time-dependent biochar effects, dynamic sorption processes, and microbially mediated nitrogen transformations rather than deficiencies in experimental data. Overall, the findings demonstrate that biochar–nitrogen integration can enhance wheat productivity and moderate downward nitrogen redistribution under semi-arid conditions, provided that biochar rate and fertilizer source are carefully matched to soil texture. Moderate biochar inputs represent a context-specific compromise between agronomic benefits, environmental protection, and practical feasibility in semi-arid wheat systems.
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Claims 12
Claim · model-written summary
In sandy loam soils, higher biochar rates combined with urea enhanced wheat grain yield.
- Taxon
- wheat
Triticum aestivumt0 - Treatment
- higher biochar rates combined with ureae1
- Outcome
- grain yielde1
- Direction
- enhancede1
- Qualifier
- sandy loam soilse1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“In sandy loam soils, higher biochar rates combined with urea enhanced grain yield”
Claim · model-written summary
In sandy loam soils, higher biochar rates combined with urea were associated with increased sub-root-zone NO3-N values in wheat.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- higher biochar rates combined with ureae1
- Outcome
- sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N valuese1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Qualifier
- sandy loam soilse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“In sandy loam soils, higher biochar rates combined with urea enhanced grain yield but were associated with increased sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N values”
Claim · model-written summary
In silty clay loam soils, moderate biochar application (about 40 t ha-1) combined with ammonium nitrate improved nitrogen use efficiency.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- moderate biochar application (≈40 t ha −1 ) combined with ammonium nitratee1
- Outcome
- nitrogen use efficiencye1
- Direction
- improvinge1
- Qualifier
- silty clay loam soilse1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“In silty clay loam soils, moderate biochar application (≈40 t ha −1 ) combined with ammonium nitrate provided a balanced agronomic–environmental outcome, improving nitrogen use efficiency”
Claim · model-written summary
In silty clay loam soils, moderate biochar application (about 40 t ha-1) combined with ammonium nitrate limited downward nitrogen redistribution.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- moderate biochar application (≈40 t ha −1 ) combined with ammonium nitratee1
- Outcome
- downward nitrogen redistributione1
- Direction
- limitinge1
- Qualifier
- silty clay loam soilse1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“In silty clay loam soils, moderate biochar application (≈40 t ha −1 ) combined with ammonium nitrate provided a balanced agronomic–environmental outcome, improving nitrogen use efficiency while limiting downward nitrogen redistribution”
Claim · model-written summary
Grain yield of wheat was strongly correlated with dry matter accumulation (r = 0.93).
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- dry matter accumulatione1
- Outcome
- Grain yielde1
- Direction
- increaseinferrede1
- Value
- r = 0.93 **e1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“Grain yield was strongly correlated with dry matter accumulation (r = 0.93 ** )”
Claim · model-written summary
Sub-root-zone NO3-N values were negatively associated with wheat grain yield and grain protein concentration.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N valuese1
- Outcome
- grain yield, and grain protein concentratione1
- Direction
- decreaseinferrede1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“negative associations between sub-root-zone NO 3 – -N values, grain yield, and grain protein concentration”
Claim · model-written summary
APSIM-Wheat and HYDRUS-2D reproduced wheat crop growth dynamics across soil textures.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- reproduced crop growth dynamicse1
- Comparator
- soil texturese1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“Integrated simulations using APSIM-Wheat and HYDRUS-2D reproduced crop growth dynamics across soil textures”
Claim · model-written summary
The simulations overestimated downward nitrogen redistribution at low biochar rates compared with higher rates.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- biochar ratese1
- Outcome
- simulating downward nitrogen redistributione1
- Direction
- overestimatione1
- Comparator
- higher ratese1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“systematic bias in simulating downward nitrogen redistribution, with overestimation at low biochar rates and underestimation at higher rates”
Claim · model-written summary
The simulations underestimated downward nitrogen redistribution at higher biochar rates compared with low rates.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- biochar ratese1
- Outcome
- simulating downward nitrogen redistributione1
- Direction
- underestimatione1
- Comparator
- low biochar ratese1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“systematic bias in simulating downward nitrogen redistribution, with overestimation at low biochar rates and underestimation at higher rates”
Claim · model-written summary
The simulation discrepancies likely reflect structural limitations in representing time-dependent biochar effects, dynamic sorption processes and microbially mediated nitrogen transformations.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- discrepanciese1
- Qualifier
- structural limitations in representing time-dependent biochar effects, dynamic sorption processes, and microbially mediated nitrogen transformationse1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“These discrepancies likely reflect structural limitations in representing time-dependent biochar effects, dynamic sorption processes, and microbially mediated nitrogen transformations rather than deficiencies in experimental data”
Claim · model-written summary
Soil-specific integration of biochar rate and nitrogen fertilizer source is recommended over universal strategies for enhancing wheat productivity while moderating environmental risk.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- soil-specific integration of biochar rate and nitrogen fertilizer sourcee1
- Outcome
- enhancing productivity while moderating environmental riske1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“The results emphasize that soil-specific integration of biochar rate and nitrogen fertilizer source, rather than universal application strategies, is essential for enhancing productivity while moderating environmental risk in semi-arid wheat systems”
Claim · model-written summary
Year, biochar rate, fertilizer source and soil texture had significant main and interaction effects in the wheat trials.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- main and interaction effects of year, biochar rate, fertilizer source, and soil texturee1
- Qualifier
- p < 0.05e1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“wheat yield”
e1“Statistical analyses confirmed significant main and interaction effects of year, biochar rate, fertilizer source, and soil texture (p < 0.05)”
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