Abstract
Introduction Perennial cover crops (also referred to as living mulches) represent an innovative management strategy that provides continuous soil cover throughout the year and supports organic production systems, agroforestry practices, and the adoption of sustainable agricultural systems. Although the benefits of annual cover crops are well documented, the potential benefit of perennial cover crops to enhance ecosystem services, including the potential for providing high-quality forage, remains underexplored. Methods To better understand the potential benefits of perennial cover crop mixtures, we quantified changes in plant physiology, biomass, and measures of forage quality across single- and mixed-species of clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis ). We applied varying ratios of clover and grass (C 100 , C 75 -G 25 , C 50 -G 50 , C 25 -G 75 , G 100 ), with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation. Results Clover dominant mixtures, particularly C 75 –G 25 , exhibited higher leaf chlorophyll content and produced the greatest shoot biomass. This mixture, when inoculated with AMF, also showed the highest shoot C and N concentrations, with AMF increasing shoot and root C by 7–9% and N by 20–33%. Across monocultures and mixtures, AMF inoculation increased photosynthetic rates by 7.2% and reduced intercellular CO 2 concentrations by 4.1%, which was associated with greater C and N concentration. AMF inoculation also enhanced root network depth, width, surface area, and volume by 3.5–28.1% across all treatments. Forage quality was specific to the species, with clover providing higher protein, fat, and calcium contents, and grass providing greater dry matter, phosphorus, potassium, lignin, ADF, NDF, and dNDF 48 . Discussion Overall, our results demonstrate that mixed legume–grass systems, particularly when combined with AMF, optimized biomass production, C and N concentration, and forage quality.
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Claims 13
Claim · model-written summary
Clover-dominant mixtures, particularly C75-G25, had higher leaf chlorophyll content.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )
.jpg?width=60)
Poa pratensis
Trifolium ambiguume0 - Treatment
- Clover dominant mixtures, particularly C 75 –G 25e1
- Outcome
- leaf chlorophyll contente1
- Direction
- highere1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
.jpg?width=500)
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“Clover dominant mixtures, particularly C 75 –G 25 , exhibited higher leaf chlorophyll content”
Claim · model-written summary
Clover-dominant mixtures, particularly C75-G25, produced the greatest shoot biomass.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- Clover dominant mixtures, particularly C 75 –G 25e1
- Outcome
- shoot biomasse1
- Direction
- greateste1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“Clover dominant mixtures, particularly C 75 –G 25 , exhibited higher leaf chlorophyll content and produced the greatest shoot biomass”
Claim · model-written summary
The C75-G25 mixture inoculated with AMF showed the highest shoot C and N concentrations.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- inoculated with AMFe1
- Interactor
- AMFe1symbiont
- Outcome
- shoot C and N concentrationse1
- Direction
- higheste1
- Comparator
- without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculatione3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“This mixture, when inoculated with AMF, also showed the highest shoot C and N concentrations”
e3“with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation”
Claim · model-written summary
AMF inoculation increased shoot and root C by 7-9%.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- AMFe1
- Interactor
- AMFe1symbiont
- Outcome
- shoot and root Ce1
- Direction
- increasinge1
- Value
- 7–9%e1
- Comparator
- without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculatione3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“AMF increasing shoot and root C by 7–9%”
e3“with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation”
Claim · model-written summary
AMF inoculation increased shoot and root N by 20-33%.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- AMFe1
- Interactor
- AMFe1symbiont
- Outcome
- Ne1
- Direction
- increasinge1
- Value
- 20–33%e1
- Qualifier
- shoot and roote1
- Comparator
- without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculatione3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“AMF increasing shoot and root C by 7–9% and N by 20–33%”
e3“with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation”
Claim · model-written summary
Across monocultures and mixtures, AMF inoculation increased photosynthetic rates by 7.2%.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- AMF inoculatione1
- Interactor
- AMFe1symbiont
- Outcome
- photosynthetic ratese1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Value
- 7.2%e1
- Comparator
- without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculatione3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“AMF inoculation increased photosynthetic rates by 7.2%”
e3“with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation”
Claim · model-written summary
Across monocultures and mixtures, AMF inoculation reduced intercellular CO2 concentrations by 4.1%.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- AMF inoculatione1
- Interactor
- AMFe1symbiont
- Outcome
- intercellular CO 2 concentrationse1
- Direction
- reducede1
- Value
- 4.1%e1
- Comparator
- without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculatione3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“AMF inoculation increased photosynthetic rates by 7.2% and reduced intercellular CO 2 concentrations by 4.1%”
e3“with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation”
Claim · model-written summary
The reduction in intercellular CO2 concentration was associated with greater C and N concentration.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Compound
- intercellular CO 2 concentrationse1
- Outcome
- C and N concentratione1
- Direction
- greatere1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“reduced intercellular CO 2 concentrations by 4.1%, which was associated with greater C and N concentration”
Claim · model-written summary
AMF inoculation enhanced root network depth, width and surface area by 3.5-28.1% across all treatments.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- AMF inoculatione1
- Interactor
- AMFe1symbiont
- Outcome
- root network depth, width, surface areae1
- Direction
- enhancede1
- Value
- 3.5–28.1%e1
- Comparator
- without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculatione3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“AMF inoculation also enhanced root network depth, width, surface area, and volume by 3.5–28.1% across all treatments”
e3“with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation”
Claim · model-written summary
AMF inoculation enhanced root network volume by 3.5-28.1% across all treatments.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Treatment
- AMF inoculatione1
- Interactor
- AMFe1symbiont
- Outcome
- volumee1
- Direction
- enhancede1
- Value
- 3.5–28.1%e1
- Qualifier
- root networke1
- Comparator
- without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculatione3
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“AMF inoculation also enhanced root network depth, width, surface area, and volume by 3.5–28.1% across all treatments”
e3“with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation”
Claim · model-written summary
Clover provided higher protein, fat and calcium contents in forage.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Outcome
- protein, fat, and calcium contentse1
- Direction
- highere1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“clover providing higher protein, fat, and calcium contents”
Claim · model-written summary
Grass provided greater dry matter, phosphorus and potassium in forage.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Outcome
- dry matter, phosphorus, potassiume1
- Direction
- greatere1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“grass providing greater dry matter, phosphorus, potassium”
Claim · model-written summary
Grass provided greater lignin, ADF, NDF and dNDF 48 in forage.
- Taxon
- clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )Poa pratensisTrifolium ambiguume0
- Outcome
- lignin, ADF, NDF, and dNDF 48e1
- Direction
- greatere1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis )”
e1“grass providing greater dry matter, phosphorus, potassium, lignin, ADF, NDF, and dNDF 48”
The same questions in other papers
mycorrhiza · growth · Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass)Positive and negative results
3 papers in the same direction as this paper · 1 in the opposite direction
- no effect
- positive
- positive
1 paper more in this group
See all 5 papers →inoculation · nutrient: content · Trifolium ambiguum (Caucasian clover)Results agree
1 paper in the same direction as this paper
- positive
inoculation · growth · Trifolium ambiguum (Caucasian clover)Results agree
1 paper in the same direction as this paper
- positive
inoculation · growth · Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass)Results agree
3 papers in the same direction as this paper
- positive
- positive
- positive
Claims are grouped by organism, treatment and what was measured or targeted. A paper counts as positive when any of its claims in the group is positive.