Abstract
In mountainous citrus orchards, the application of conventional ground sprayers for the control of citrus red mite (Panonychus citri) is often constrained by complex terrain and low operational efficiency. The Unmanned Aerial Spraying System (UASS), due to its low-altitude, low-volume, and high-maneuverability characteristics, has emerged as a promising alternative for pest management in such challenging environments. To evaluate the spray performance and field efficacy of different UASS types in controlling P. citri, five representative UASS models (JX25, DP, T1000, E-A2021, and T20), four mainstream pesticide formulations, and four novel tank-mix adjuvants were systematically assessed in a field experiment conducted in a typical hilly citrus orchard. The results showed that T20 delivered the best overall spray deposition, with upper canopy coverage reaching 10.63%, a deposition of 3.01 μg/cm2, and the highest pesticide utilization (43.2%). E-A2021, equipped with a centrifugal nozzle, produced the finest droplets and highest droplet density (120.3–151.4 deposits/cm2), but its deposition and coverage were lowest due to drift. Nonetheless, it exhibited superior penetration (dIPR 72.3%, dDPR 73.5%), facilitating internal canopy coverage. T1000, operating at higher flight parameters, had the weakest deposition. Formulation type had a limited impact, with microemulsions (MEs) outperforming emulsifiable concentrates (ECs) and suspension concentrates (SCs). All adjuvants improved spray metrics, especially Yimanchu and Silwet, which enhanced pesticide utilization to 46.8% and 46.4% for E-A2021 and DP, respectively. Adjuvant use increased utilization by 4.6–11.9%, but also raised ground losses by 1.5–4.2%, except for Yimanchu, which reduced ground loss by 2.3%. In terms of control effect, the rapid efficacy (1–7 days after application, DAA) of UASS spraying was slightly lower than that of ground sprayers—electric spray gun (ESG), while its residual efficacy (14–25 DAA) was slightly higher. The addition of adjuvants improved both rapid and residual efficacy, making it comparable to or even better than ESG. E-A2021 with 5% abamectin·etoxazole ME (5A·E) and Yimanchu achieved 97.4% efficacy at 25 DAA. Among UASSs, T20 showed the rapid control, while E-A2021 outperformed JX25 and T1000 due to finer droplets effectively targeting P. citri. In residual control (14–25 DAA), JX25 with 45% bifenazate·etoxazole SC (45B·E) was most effective, followed by T20. 5A·E and 45B·E showed better residual efficacy than abamectin-based formulations, which declined more rapidly. Adjuvants significantly extended control duration, with Yimanchu performing best. This study demonstrates that with optimized spraying parameters, nozzle types, and adjuvants, UASSs can match or surpass ground spraying in P. citri control in hilly citrus orchards, providing valuable guidance for precision pesticide application in complex terrain.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
T20 produced the best deposition, upper canopy coverage of 10.63%, deposition of 3.01 μg/cm2 and utilization of 43.2%.
CitrusOrganisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“T20 delivered the best overall spray deposition, with upper canopy coverage reaching 10.63%, a deposition of 3.01 μg/cm2, and the highest pesticide utilization (43.2%)”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
E-A2021 yielded the finest droplets and highest density.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“E-A2021, equipped with a centrifugal nozzle, produced the finest droplets and highest droplet density (120.3–151.4 deposits/cm2)”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
E-A2021 had the lowest deposition and coverage due to drift.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“its deposition and coverage were lowest due to drift”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
E-A2021 showed superior penetration.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“it exhibited superior penetration (dIPR 72.3%, dDPR 73.5%)”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
T1000 had the weakest deposition.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“T1000, operating at higher flight parameters, had the weakest deposition”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Microemulsions outperformed emulsifiable and suspension concentrates.
- Treatment
- microemulsions (MEs)e0
- Outcome
- outperforminge0
- Comparator
- emulsifiable concentrates (ECs) and suspension concentrates (SCs)e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“microemulsions (MEs) outperforming emulsifiable concentrates (ECs) and suspension concentrates (SCs)”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
All adjuvants improved spray metrics.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“All adjuvants improved spray metrics”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Yimanchu raised E-A2021 pesticide utilization to 46.8%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yimanchu and Silwet, which enhanced pesticide utilization to 46.8% and 46.4% for E-A2021 and DP, respectively”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Silwet raised DP pesticide utilization to 46.4%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yimanchu and Silwet, which enhanced pesticide utilization to 46.8% and 46.4% for E-A2021 and DP, respectively”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Adjuvants increased utilization by 4.6–11.9%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Adjuvant use increased utilization by 4.6–11.9%”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Adjuvants raised ground losses by 1.5–4.2%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“raised ground losses by 1.5–4.2%”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Yimanchu reduced ground loss by 2.3%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yimanchu, which reduced ground loss by 2.3%”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Aerial spray rapid mite efficacy was slightly below ground spraying.
- Treatment
- UASS sprayinge0
- Outcome
- rapid efficacye0
- Direction
- lowere0
- Comparator
- ground sprayers—electric spray gun (ESG)e0
Not reportedInteractor
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“rapid efficacy (1–7 days after application, DAA) of UASS spraying was slightly lower than that of ground sprayers—electric spray gun (ESG)”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Aerial spray residual mite efficacy was slightly above ground spraying.
Not reportedTreatmentComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“residual efficacy (14–25 DAA) was slightly higher”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Adjuvants improved rapid and residual control efficacy.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The addition of adjuvants improved both rapid and residual efficacy”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
E-A2021 with 5A·E and Yimanchu achieved 97.4% efficacy at 25 days.
- Treatment
- E-A2021 with 5% abamectin·etoxazole ME (5A·E) and Yimanchue0
- Outcome
- efficacye0
- Value
- 97.4%e0
- Qualifier
- 25 DAAe0
Not reportedComparatorDirection
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“E-A2021 with 5% abamectin·etoxazole ME (5A·E) and Yimanchu achieved 97.4% efficacy at 25 DAA”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
T20 gave rapid control, while E-A2021 outperformed JX25 and T1000.
- Treatment
- E-A2021e0
- Interactor
- P. citriPanonychus citrie0pest
- Outcome
- P. citrie0
- Direction
- outperformede0
- Comparator
- JX25 and T1000e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“T20 showed the rapid control, while E-A2021 outperformed JX25 and T1000 due to finer droplets effectively targeting P. citri”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
JX25 with 45B·E was most effective for residual control.
- Treatment
- JX25 with 45% bifenazate·etoxazole SC (45B·E)e0
- Outcome
- residual controle0
- Direction
- most effectivee0
- Comparator
- T20e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In residual control (14–25 DAA), JX25 with 45% bifenazate·etoxazole SC (45B·E) was most effective, followed by T20”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
5A·E and 45B·E had better residual efficacy than abamectin formulations.
- Treatment
- 5A·E and 45B·Ee0
- Outcome
- residual efficacye0
- Direction
- bettere0
- Comparator
- abamectin-based formulationse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“5A·E and 45B·E showed better residual efficacy than abamectin-based formulations, which declined more rapidly”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
Claim · model-written summary
Adjuvants extended control duration, especially Yimanchu.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Adjuvants significantly extended control duration, with Yimanchu performing best”
t0“Citrus Orchards”
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