Abstract
BACKGROUND: Vascular wilt caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi is among the most destructive soil-borne diseases threatening pea cultivation worldwide, particularly under warm and humid conditions that favor pathogen proliferation. Conventional management strategies rely heavily on chemical fungicides; however, their extensive use has resulted in environmental contamination, health concerns, and the emergence of resistant pathogen strains. Recently, nanotechnology-based disease management has emerged as a sustainable alternative. Silicon (Si) and chitosan (Cs) are recognized as effective resistance inducers, and their nano-formulations (Si-NPs and Cs-NPs) may further enhance disease suppression and activation of plant defense responses. An integrated strategy combining in vitro antifungal assays, greenhouse disease evaluation, and multi-level physiological and anatomical analyses was employed. Nevertheless, comparative evaluations of these nano-elicitors against F. oxysporum in pea remain limited, particularly under greenhouse conditions. RESULTS: In vitro assays demonstrated that Si-NPs and Cs-NPs completely inhibited mycelial growth (100% inhibition) of F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi at 150 µg/mL, whereas conventional Si (8 g/L) achieved only 50.7% inhibition, and Cs (8 g/L) achieved 100% inhibition. Under greenhouse conditions, seed treatment with Si-NPs markedly reduced the severity of Fusarium wilt in pea plants by 72.7%, showing a level of protection comparable to the systemic fungicide control. Likewise, Cs-NPs significantly decreased wilt severity by 72.2%, whereas conventional Si and Cs treatments were less effective, achieving 60.6% and 63.6% reductions, respectively. Biochemical analyses showed that Si-NPs increased total phenols by 116.8%, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) by 102%, and peroxidase (POD) by 31.4%, followed by Cs-NPs (106.6%, 72.1%, and 27.9%, respectively). Si-NPs also enhanced chlorophyll a, b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids by 108.9%, 43.7%, 111.7%, and 69.2%, while reducing membrane permeability and lipid peroxidation by 37.1% and 69.8%, respectively. Si-NPs increased total root section thickness, cortex thickness, vascular cylinder thickness, and xylem vessel diameter by 15.81%, 12.51%, 21.00%, and 90.60%, respectively, while Cs-NPs enhanced these traits by 13.73%, 7.85%, 19.02%, and 63.76%. Notably, nano-formulations-particularly Si-NPs-promoted coordinated reinforcement of root tissues, reflected by optimized cortex-to-vascular cylinder ratios, which likely contributed to enhanced resistance against F. oxysporum without impairing vascular function. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study demonstrate that Si-NPs and Cs-NPs provide superior protection against F. oxysporum-induced wilt in pea plants compared to their conventional counterparts. Their enhanced performance is attributed to a dual mode of action-direct antifungal activity and the stimulation of plant defense responses. These results underscore the potential of Si-NPs and Cs-NPs as promising, eco-sustainable alternatives to synthetic fungicides for integrated disease management in legumes. Future studies should focus on evaluating their long-term field efficacy, formulation stability, and environmental safety to facilitate large-scale agricultural applications.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles fully inhibited Fusarium growth at 150 µg/mL.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)
Lathyrus oleraceust0 - Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Interactor
- F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisie0pathogen - Outcome
- mycelial growthe0
- Direction
- completely inhibitede0
- Value
- 100% inhibitione0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs and Cs-NPs completely inhibited mycelial growth (100% inhibition) of F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi at 150 µg/mL”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Chitosan nanoparticles fully inhibited Fusarium growth at 150 µg/mL.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Cs-NPse0
- Interactor
- F. oxysporum f. sp. pisiFusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisie0pathogen
- Outcome
- mycelial growthe0
- Direction
- completely inhibitede0
- Value
- 100% inhibitione0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs and Cs-NPs completely inhibited mycelial growth (100% inhibition) of F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi at 150 µg/mL”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Conventional silicon inhibited Fusarium growth by 50.7%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- conventional Si (8 g/L)e0
- Interactor
- F. oxysporum f. sp. pisiFusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisie1pathogen
- Outcome
- mycelial growthe1
- Direction
- inhibitione0
- Value
- 50.7%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“conventional Si (8 g/L) achieved only 50.7% inhibition”
e1“mycelial growth (100% inhibition) of F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Conventional chitosan inhibited Fusarium growth by 100%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Cs (8 g/L)e0
- Interactor
- F. oxysporum f. sp. pisiFusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisie1pathogen
- Outcome
- mycelial growthe1
- Direction
- inhibitione0
- Value
- 100%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Cs (8 g/L) achieved 100% inhibition”
e1“mycelial growth (100% inhibition) of F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticle seed treatment reduced pea wilt severity by 72.7%.
- Taxon
- peaLathyrus oleraceuse0
- Treatment
- seed treatment with Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- severity of Fusarium wilte0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Value
- 72.7%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“seed treatment with Si-NPs markedly reduced the severity of Fusarium wilt in pea plants by 72.7%”
Claim · model-written summary
Cs nanoparticles decreased pea wilt severity by 72.2%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Cs-NPse0
- Interactor
- F. oxysporum
_(Fusarium_oxysporum_f.sp._batatas)_1234227-PPT-Clemson_University.jpg?width=60)
Fusarium oxysporume1pathogen - Outcome
- wilt severitye0
- Direction
- decreasede0
- Value
- 72.2%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
_(Fusarium_oxysporum_f.sp._batatas)_1234227-PPT-Clemson_University.jpg?width=500)
Verbatim
e0“Cs-NPs significantly decreased wilt severity by 72.2%”
e1“Si-NPs and Cs-NPs completely inhibited mycelial growth (100% inhibition) of F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi at 150 µg/mL”
t0“Fusarium oxysporum causing wilt in pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Conventional silicon reduced pea wilt severity by 60.6%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- conventional Sie0
- Interactor
- Fusarium oxysporumFusarium oxysporumt0pathogen
- Outcome
- wilt severitye1
- Direction
- reductionse0
- Value
- 60.6%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“conventional Si and Cs treatments were less effective, achieving 60.6% and 63.6% reductions, respectively.”
e1“decreased wilt severity by 72.2%”
t0“Fusarium oxysporum causing wilt in pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Conventional chitosan reduced pea wilt severity by 63.6%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Cs treatmentse0
- Interactor
- Fusarium oxysporumFusarium oxysporumt0pathogen
- Outcome
- wilt severitye1
- Direction
- reductionse0
- Value
- 63.6%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“conventional Si and Cs treatments were less effective, achieving 60.6% and 63.6% reductions, respectively.”
e1“decreased wilt severity by 72.2%”
t0“Fusarium oxysporum causing wilt in pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles raised total phenols by 116.8%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- total phenolse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 116.8%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs increased total phenols by 116.8%, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) by 102%, and peroxidase (POD) by 31.4%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles raised polyphenol oxidase by 102%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- polyphenol oxidase (PPO)e0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 102%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs increased total phenols by 116.8%, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) by 102%, and peroxidase (POD) by 31.4%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles raised peroxidase by 31.4%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- peroxidase (POD)e0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 31.4%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs increased total phenols by 116.8%, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) by 102%, and peroxidase (POD) by 31.4%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Cs nanoparticles raised phenols, PPO, and POD by 106.6%, 72.1%, and 27.9%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Cs-NPse0
- Outcome
- total phenolse1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Value
- 106.6%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“followed by Cs-NPs (106.6%, 72.1%, and 27.9%, respectively)”
e1“Si-NPs increased total phenols by 116.8%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles raised chlorophyll a by 108.9%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- chlorophyll ae0
- Direction
- enhancede0
- Value
- 108.9%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs also enhanced chlorophyll a, b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids by 108.9%, 43.7%, 111.7%, and 69.2%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles raised chlorophyll b by 43.7%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- chlorophyll a, be0
- Direction
- enhancede0
- Value
- 43.7%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs also enhanced chlorophyll a, b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids by 108.9%, 43.7%, 111.7%, and 69.2%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles raised total chlorophyll by 111.7%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- total chlorophylle0
- Direction
- enhancede0
- Value
- 111.7%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs also enhanced chlorophyll a, b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids by 108.9%, 43.7%, 111.7%, and 69.2%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles raised carotenoids by 69.2%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- carotenoidse0
- Direction
- enhancede0
- Value
- 69.2%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs also enhanced chlorophyll a, b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids by 108.9%, 43.7%, 111.7%, and 69.2%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles reduced membrane permeability by 37.1%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse1
- Outcome
- membrane permeabilitye0
- Direction
- reducinge0
- Value
- 37.1%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“reducing membrane permeability and lipid peroxidation by 37.1% and 69.8%, respectively.”
e1“Si-NPs also enhanced chlorophyll a”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles reduced lipid peroxidation by 69.8%.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse1
- Outcome
- lipid peroxidatione0
- Direction
- reducinge0
- Value
- 69.8%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“reducing membrane permeability and lipid peroxidation by 37.1% and 69.8%, respectively.”
e1“Si-NPs also enhanced chlorophyll a”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Si nanoparticles increased root anatomical dimensions.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Si-NPse0
- Outcome
- total root section thickness, cortex thickness, vascular cylinder thickness, and xylem vessel diametere0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 15.81%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Si-NPs increased total root section thickness, cortex thickness, vascular cylinder thickness, and xylem vessel diameter by 15.81%, 12.51%, 21.00%, and 90.60%, respectively”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
Claim · model-written summary
Cs nanoparticles enhanced root anatomical dimensions.
- Taxon
- pea (Pisum sativum)Lathyrus oleraceust0
- Treatment
- Cs-NPse0
- Outcome
- these traitse0
- Direction
- enhancede0
- Value
- 13.73%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Cs-NPs enhanced these traits by 13.73%, 7.85%, 19.02%, and 63.76%”
t0“pea (Pisum sativum)”
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See all 5 papers →8 of 9 groups shown: named compounds and organisms first, then groups whose results differ (checked claim by claim), then those with positive and negative results, then the smaller groups.
Claims are grouped by organism, treatment and what was measured or targeted. A paper counts as positive when any of its claims in the group is positive.