Abstract
Pine wilt disease (PWD), caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus , is notoriously difficult to control as the nematodes reside deep within host tissues, while conventional chemical treatments pose significant ecological risks. This study reports on the synthesis, characterization, and comparative evaluation of two distinct, environmentally friendly gold nanomaterials for PWD management: ultrasmall, negatively charged L-histidine-stabilized gold nanoclusters (His-AuNCs) and larger, positively charged polyethyleneimine-functionalized gold nanoparticles (PEI-AuNPs). His-AuNCs were synthesized via a green aqueous-phase method, yielding monodisperse particles (1.36 ± 0.05 nm; -19.2 ± 0.3 mV). PEI-AuNPs were uniform, spherical particles with a positive surface charge (+26.5 ± 1.5 mV) and a hydrodynamic diameter of 11.18 ± 0.9 nm. In vitro assays demonstrated that both nanomaterials induced nematode immobilization in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, with 0.5 mg/L His-AuNCs causing ~70% immobility and 0.5 mg/L PEI-AuNPs causing over 75% immobility after 48 hours. In feeding-based assays, both materials suppressed nematode population expansion. Confocal and TEM imaging confirmed that both nanoparticles were internalized by B. xylophilus , accumulating in internal tissues, particularly in the anterior and intestinal regions. Stem injection of either nanomaterial (at 0.05 mg/L) effectively delayed symptom onset, reduced disease severity, and preserved vascular integrity in pine seedlings. Transcriptomic analysis revealed distinct molecular responses: His-AuNCs downregulated genes related to cuticle formation and metabolism, whereas PEI-AuNPs induced a focused stress response, primarily upregulating heat shock proteins. Despite their potent bioactivity, both materials exhibited minimal acute toxicity in zebrafish assays, supporting their environmental safety. These findings establish that surface functionalization is associated with distinct phenotypic and transcriptional response signatures of gold nanomaterials and demonstrate that both PEI-AuNPs and His-AuNCs are promising, dual-function agents for the sustainable control of pine wilt disease. • Surface-functionalized gold nanomaterials directly suppress Bursaphelenchus xylophilus • Ultrasmall Au nanoclusters and PEI-Au nanoparticles show distinct nematicidal modes • Gold nanomaterials are internalized and accumulate in nematode tissues • Low-dose stem injection delays pine wilt disease and preserves vascular integrity • Minimal acute toxicity is observed in a zebrafish biosafety model
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Claims 13
Claim · model-written summary
Both gold nanomaterials induced B. xylophilus immobilization in a concentration- and time-dependent manner in vitro.
- Taxon
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
Bursaphelenchus xylophilust0 - Treatment
- both nanomaterialse0
- Outcome
- nematode immobilizatione0
- Direction
- inducede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“both nanomaterials induced nematode immobilization in a concentration- and time-dependent manner”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
0.5 mg/L His-AuNCs caused about 70% nematode immobility after 48 hours.
- Taxon
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0
- Treatment
- 0.5 mg/L His-AuNCse1
- Outcome
- immobilitye1
- Direction
- causinge1
- Value
- ~70%e1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“0.5 mg/L His-AuNCs causing ~70% immobility”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
0.5 mg/L PEI-AuNPs caused over 75% nematode immobility after 48 hours.
- Taxon
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0
- Treatment
- 0.5 mg/L PEI-AuNPse2
- Outcome
- immobilitye2
- Direction
- causinge2
- Value
- over 75%e2
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e2“0.5 mg/L PEI-AuNPs causing over 75% immobility after 48 hours”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
In feeding-based assays both gold nanomaterials suppressed nematode population expansion.
- Taxon
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0
- Treatment
- both materialse3
- Outcome
- nematode population expansione3
- Direction
- suppressede3
- Setting
- feeding-based assayse3
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“In feeding-based assays, both materials suppressed nematode population expansion”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
Both nanoparticles were internalized by B. xylophilus and accumulated in internal tissues, particularly the anterior and intestinal regions.
Verbatim
e4“both nanoparticles were internalized by B. xylophilus , accumulating in internal tissues, particularly in the anterior and intestinal regions”
Claim · model-written summary
Stem injection of either nanomaterial at 0.05 mg/L delayed symptom onset in pine seedlings.
- Treatment
- Stem injection of either nanomaterial (at 0.05 mg/L)e5
- Interactor
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0pathogen
- Outcome
- symptom onsete5
- Direction
- delayede5
PinusNot reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e5“Stem injection of either nanomaterial (at 0.05 mg/L) effectively delayed symptom onset, reduced disease severity, and preserved vascular integrity in pine seedlings”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
Stem injection of either nanomaterial at 0.05 mg/L reduced disease severity in pine seedlings.
- Treatment
- Stem injection of either nanomaterial (at 0.05 mg/L)e5
- Interactor
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0pathogen
- Outcome
- disease severitye5
- Direction
- reducede5
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e5“Stem injection of either nanomaterial (at 0.05 mg/L) effectively delayed symptom onset, reduced disease severity, and preserved vascular integrity in pine seedlings”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
Stem injection of either nanomaterial at 0.05 mg/L preserved vascular integrity in pine seedlings.
- Treatment
- Stem injection of either nanomaterial (at 0.05 mg/L)e5
- Interactor
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0pathogen
- Outcome
- vascular integritye5
- Direction
- preservede5
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e5“Stem injection of either nanomaterial (at 0.05 mg/L) effectively delayed symptom onset, reduced disease severity, and preserved vascular integrity in pine seedlings”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
His-AuNCs downregulated genes related to cuticle formation and metabolism in the nematode.
- Taxon
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0
- Treatment
- His-AuNCse6
- Outcome
- genes related to cuticle formation and metabolisme6
- Direction
- downregulatede6
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e6“His-AuNCs downregulated genes related to cuticle formation and metabolism”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
PEI-AuNPs induced a focused stress response in the nematode, primarily upregulating heat shock proteins.
- Taxon
- Bursaphelenchus xylophilusBursaphelenchus xylophilust0
- Treatment
- PEI-AuNPse7
- Outcome
- heat shock proteinse7
- Direction
- upregulatinge7
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e7“PEI-AuNPs induced a focused stress response, primarily upregulating heat shock proteins”
t0“Bursaphelenchus xylophilus”
Claim · model-written summary
Both gold nanomaterials showed minimal acute toxicity in zebrafish assays.
- Taxon
- zebrafish
Danio rerioe1 - Treatment
- both materialse1
- Outcome
- acute toxicitye1
- Direction
- minimale1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“both materials exhibited minimal acute toxicity in zebrafish assays”
Claim · model-written summary
Green synthesis of His-AuNCs yielded monodisperse particles of 1.36 ± 0.05 nm with a zeta potential of -19.2 ± 0.3 mV.
Verbatim
e0“yielding monodisperse particles (1.36 ± 0.05 nm; -19.2 ± 0.3 mV)”
Claim · model-written summary
PEI-AuNPs were uniform spherical particles with a hydrodynamic diameter of 11.18 ± 0.9 nm.
Verbatim
e0“a hydrodynamic diameter of 11.18 ± 0.9 nm”
The same questions in other papers
application · Bursaphelenchus xylophilus · PinusResults agree
6 papers in the same direction as this paper
- positive
- positive
- positive
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