Abstract
Management strategies for the establishment and maintenance of perennial leguminous living mulches were tested at irrigated sites in Colorado. Living mulches have been successfully integrated into corn (Zea mays) cropping systems in the upper Midwest of the United States. These studies focused on adapting the practice to irrigated environments in the semi-arid West through mulch and cash crop species selection and determination of appropriate suppression regimes. Different mulch/annual crop combinations were tested in both the establishment year and with previously established perennial legume stands. Spring herbicide regimes were tested on living mulches, and potential mulch species were screened for recovery from glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] application. The goal of the first study was to determine whether birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), white clover (Trifolium repens), and a mix of white clover, red clover (Trifolium pretense), and kura clover (Trifolium ambiguum) could be co-established with corn and oats (Avena sativa) for use as living mulches. Legumes were seeded with annual crops at two irrigated sites. Mulch crops did not have any effect on annual crop yield or quality. Yields of legumes established with corn averaged 276 kg ha-1 in spring of the following year while legumes established with oats cut at the boot and soft dough stages yielded 951 and 611 kg ha-1, respectively. Among legume treatments, the clover mix yielded the highest, averaging 869 kg ha-1 across annual crops followed by birdsfoot trefoil and white clover at 542 and 427 kg ha-1, respectively. The second study tested different living mulch and annual crops for performance and compatibility. Corn and soybeans (Glycine max) were planted into established legume stands. Fertility treatments of 0, 84, 168, and 225 kg ha-1 nitrogen (N) were also applied to corn without a living mulch and used to generate N response curves to quantify N inputs of living mulches, which received only 84 kg N ha-1. Legume N contributions of living mulch treatments were 69, 46, 45, 32, and 23 kg ha-1 for alfalfa (Medicago sativa), white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, red clover, and a mix of birdsfoot trefoil/red clover, respectively, in corn silage. In corn grain, N contributions of legume treatments were 52, 43, 23, 20, and 18 kg ha-1 for white clover, alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil/red clover mix, birdsfoot trefoil, and red clover, respectively. Soybean yields did not respond positively or negatively to the presence of living mulches. Birdsfoot trefoil had the greatest fall yield at 282 kg ha-1. The goal of the third study was to determine whether previously established birdsfoot trefoil, white clover, and a mix of white clover, red clover, and kura clover could be suppressed with paraquat (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridylium-dichloride) and glyphosate for use as living mulches in corn. Preplant treatments included: paraquat at 0.7 kg a.i. ha-1 and glyphosate at 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 kg a.e. ha-1. All of these were followed by a mid-season application of glyphosate at 1.0 kg a.e. ha-1. Corn grain and legume yields were recorded in the fall. Legume by suppression treatment interactions occurred for both of these factors at the sprinkler irrigated site. At the furrow irrigated site, corn grain yields with birdsfoot trefoil averaged 11.2 Mg ha-1, which was greater than with white clover and the clover mix that yielded 10.1 and 10.0 Mg ha-1, respectively. Fall legume biomass yields of birdsfoot trefoil, white clover, and the clover mix were 11, 343, and 320 kg ha-1, respectively. Suppression treatment did not have any effect on grain yield or legume biomass. Even modest recovery of the clovers during the growing season resulted in some corn yield reduction. The fourth study evaluated persistence of legumes after glyphosate application by measuring biomass relative to an untreated control. Field tests included rates of 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 kg a.e. ha-1, while trials of potted plants started in the greenhouse lacked the 2.5 kg a.e. ha-1 rate. White clover had the greatest recovery relative to the control in the field trial, with no glyphosate rate effect by sixteen weeks after application. Alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil consistently recovered less than red and white clovers. In the potted plant trial, above ground biomass of kura clover, white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, red clover, and alfalfa averaged 19, 7, 5, 2, and 1% of the control, respectively across rates. Preliminary results suggest that living mulch cropping systems may be a viable alternative under irrigation for producers in the western US. Mulch crops can be successfully co-established with corn or oats. White clover shows potential as a living mulch due to its positive effects on corn grain and silage yields when adequately suppressed. It also has high glyphosate tolerance. Leguminous living mulches can reduce nitrogen fertilizer needs, but adequately suppressing the mulch to minimize annual crop yield losses while maintaining the perennial legume stand remains a challenge.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
Living mulches did not affect annual crop yield or quality.
- Taxon
- corn
Zea mays subsp. mayse1 - Treatment
- Mulch cropse0
- Outcome
- annual crop yield or qualitye0
- Direction
- did not have any effecte0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Mulch crops did not have any effect on annual crop yield or quality”
e1“corn (Zea mays) cropping systems”
Claim · model-written summary
Legumes established with corn yielded 276 kg ha-1.
Verbatim
e0“Yields of legumes established with corn averaged 276 kg ha-1”
t0“leguminous living mulches”
Claim · model-written summary
Legumes established with oats cut at boot stage yielded 951 kg ha-1.
Verbatim
e0“legumes established with oats cut at the boot and soft dough stages yielded 951 and 611 kg ha-1”
t0“leguminous living mulches”
Claim · model-written summary
Legumes established with oats cut at soft dough stage yielded 611 kg ha-1.
Verbatim
e0“legumes established with oats cut at the boot and soft dough stages yielded 951 and 611 kg ha-1”
t0“leguminous living mulches”
Claim · model-written summary
Clover mix had the highest legume yield, 869 kg ha-1.
Verbatim
e0“the clover mix yielded the highest, averaging 869 kg ha-1”
t0“leguminous living mulches”
Claim · model-written summary
Birdsfoot trefoil yielded 542 kg ha-1.
Verbatim
e0“birdsfoot trefoil and white clover at 542 and 427 kg ha-1”
t0“leguminous living mulches”
Claim · model-written summary
White clover yielded 427 kg ha-1.
Verbatim
e0“birdsfoot trefoil and white clover at 542 and 427 kg ha-1”
t0“leguminous living mulches”
Claim · model-written summary
Alfalfa mulch contributed 69 kg ha-1 nitrogen in corn silage.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse0
- Treatment
- alfalfa (Medicago sativa)e0
- Outcome
- Legume N contributionse0
- Value
- 69e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Legume N contributions of living mulch treatments were 69, 46, 45, 32, and 23 kg ha-1 for alfalfa (Medicago sativa), white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, red clover, and a mix of birdsfoot trefoil/red clover, respectively, in corn silage”
Claim · model-written summary
White clover mulch contributed 46 kg ha-1 nitrogen in corn silage.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse0
- Treatment
- white clovere0
- Outcome
- Legume N contributionse0
- Value
- 46e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Legume N contributions of living mulch treatments were 69, 46, 45, 32, and 23 kg ha-1 for alfalfa (Medicago sativa), white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, red clover, and a mix of birdsfoot trefoil/red clover, respectively, in corn silage”
Claim · model-written summary
Birdsfoot trefoil mulch contributed 45 kg ha-1 nitrogen in corn silage.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse0
- Treatment
- birdsfoot trefoile0
- Outcome
- Legume N contributionse0
- Value
- 45e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Legume N contributions of living mulch treatments were 69, 46, 45, 32, and 23 kg ha-1 for alfalfa (Medicago sativa), white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, red clover, and a mix of birdsfoot trefoil/red clover, respectively, in corn silage”
Claim · model-written summary
Red clover mulch contributed 32 kg ha-1 nitrogen in corn silage.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse0
- Treatment
- red clovere0
- Outcome
- Legume N contributionse0
- Value
- 32e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Legume N contributions of living mulch treatments were 69, 46, 45, 32, and 23 kg ha-1 for alfalfa (Medicago sativa), white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, red clover, and a mix of birdsfoot trefoil/red clover, respectively, in corn silage”
Claim · model-written summary
Mixed birdsfoot and red clover mulch contributed 23 kg ha-1 nitrogen in corn silage.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse0
- Treatment
- a mix of birdsfoot trefoil/red clovere0
- Outcome
- Legume N contributionse0
- Value
- 23 kg ha-1e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Legume N contributions of living mulch treatments were 69, 46, 45, 32, and 23 kg ha-1 for alfalfa (Medicago sativa), white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, red clover, and a mix of birdsfoot trefoil/red clover, respectively, in corn silage”
Claim · model-written summary
Soybean yield showed no response to living mulches.
- Taxon
- Soybean
Glycine maxe0 - Treatment
- presence of living mulchese0
- Outcome
- Soybean yieldse0
- Direction
- did not respond positively or negativelye0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Soybean yields did not respond positively or negatively to the presence of living mulches”
Claim · model-written summary
Birdsfoot trefoil had the greatest fall yield, 282 kg ha-1.
Verbatim
e0“Birdsfoot trefoil had the greatest fall yield at 282 kg ha-1”
Claim · model-written summary
Corn grain yield with birdsfoot trefoil was 11.2 Mg ha-1 and exceeded white clover and clover mix.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse0
- Treatment
- birdsfoot trefoile0
- Outcome
- corn grain yieldse0
- Direction
- greatere0
- Value
- 11.2 Mg ha-1e0
- Comparator
- white clover and the clover mixe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“corn grain yields with birdsfoot trefoil averaged 11.2 Mg ha-1, which was greater than with white clover and the clover mix that yielded 10.1 and 10.0 Mg ha-1, respectively”
Claim · model-written summary
Suppression treatment did not affect grain yield or legume biomass.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse1
- Treatment
- Suppression treatmente0
- Outcome
- grain yield or legume biomasse0
- Direction
- did not have any effecte0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Suppression treatment did not have any effect on grain yield or legume biomass”
e1“corn (Zea mays) cropping systems”
Claim · model-written summary
Modest clover recovery reduced corn yield.
- Taxon
- cornZea mays subsp. mayse0
- Outcome
- corn yielde0
- Direction
- reductione0
TrifoliumOrganisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Even modest recovery of the clovers during the growing season resulted in some corn yield reduction”
Claim · model-written summary
White clover recovered most after glyphosate, without a rate effect at sixteen weeks.
- Taxon
- White clover
Trifolium repense0 - Treatment
- glyphosatee0
- Outcome
- recoverye0
- Direction
- greateste0
- Comparator
- controle0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“White clover had the greatest recovery relative to the control in the field trial, with no glyphosate rate effect by sixteen weeks after application”
Claim · model-written summary
Alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil recovered less than red and white clovers.
- Taxon
- Alfalfa
Medicago sativae0 - Outcome
- recoverede0
- Direction
- lesse0
- Comparator
- red and white cloverse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil consistently recovered less than red and white clovers”
Claim · model-written summary
Leguminous living mulches can reduce nitrogen fertilizer needs.
Verbatim
e0“Leguminous living mulches can reduce nitrogen fertilizer needs”
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See all 58 papers →Claims are grouped by organism, treatment and what was measured or targeted. A paper counts as positive when any of its claims in the group is positive.