Abstract
Broccoli serves as a functional food because it can accumulate selenium (Se), well-known bioactive amino-acid-derived secondary metabolites, and polyphenols. The chemical and physical properties of Se are very similar to those of sulfur (S), and competition between sulfate and selenate for uptake and assimilation has been demonstrated. Towards an efficient agronomic fortification of broccoli florets, the working questions were whether we could overcome this competition by exogenously applying the S-containing amino acids cysteine (Cys) or/and methionine (Met), or/and the precursors of Glucosinolate (GSL) types along with Se application. Broccoli plants were cultivated in a greenhouse and at the beginning of floret growth, we exogenously applied sodium selenate in the concentration gradient of 0, 0.2, 1.5, and 3.0 mM to study the impact of increased Se concentration on the organic S (Sorg) content of the floret. The Se concentration of 0.2 mM (Se0.2) was coupled with the application of Cys, Met, their combination, or a mixture of phenylalanine, tryptophane, and Met. The application took place through fertigation or foliar application (FA) by adding isodecyl alcohol ethoxylate (IAE) or a silicon ethoxylate (SiE) surfactant. Fresh biomass, dry mass, and Se accumulation in florets were evaluated, along with their contents of Sorg, chlorophylls (Chl), carotenoids (Car), glucoraphanin (GlRa), glucobrassicin (GlBra), glucoiberin (GlIb), and polyphenols (PPs), for the biofortification efficiency of the three application modes. From the studied selenium concentration gradient, the foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactant provided the lowest commercially acceptable Se content in florets (239 μg or 0.3 μmol g−1 DM); it reduced Sorg (−45%), GlIb (−31%), and GlBr (−27%); and it increased Car (21%) and GlRa (27%). Coupled with amino acids, 0.2 mM Se provided commercially acceptable Se contents per floret only via foliar application. From the studied combinations, that of Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE provided the lowest Se content per floret (183 μg or 0.2 μmol g−1 DM) and increased Sorg (35%), Car (45%), and total Chl (27%), with no effect on PPs or GSLs. Cys,Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE and amino acid mix,Se0.2/FA,IAE increased Sorg content, too, by 36% and 16%, respectively. Thus, the foliar application with the IAE surfactant was able to increase Sorg, and methionine was the amino acid in common in these treatments, with varying positive effects on carotenoids and chlorophylls. Only the Cys,Met,Se0.2 combination presented positive effects on GSLs, especially GlRa, but it reduced the fresh mass of the floret. The foliar application with SiE as a surfactant failed to positively affect the organic S content. However, in all studied combinations of Se 0.2 mM with amino acids, the Se content per floret was commercially acceptable, the yield was not affected, the content of GSLs was increased (especially that of GlRa and GlIb), and PPs were not affected. The content of GlBr decreased except for the treatment with methionine (Met,Se0.2/FA,SiE) where GlBr remained unaffected. Hence, the combination of Se with the used amino acids and surfactants can provide enhanced biofortification efficiency in broccoli by providing florets as functional foods with enhanced functional properties.
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Claims 16
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 0.2 mM Se with the SiE surfactant reduced organic S content in broccoli florets by 45%.
- Taxon
- Broccoli
Brassica oleracea var. italicae0 - Treatment
- foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactante1
- Outcome
- Sorge2
- Direction
- reducede2
- Value
- −45%e2
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e1“the foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactant provided the lowest commercially acceptable Se content in florets (239 μg or 0.3 μmol g−1 DM)”
e2“it reduced Sorg (−45%), GlIb (−31%), and GlBr (−27%)”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 0.2 mM Se with the SiE surfactant reduced glucoiberin content in broccoli florets by 31%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactante1
- Outcome
- GlIbe2
- Direction
- reducede2
- Value
- −31%e2
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e1“the foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactant provided the lowest commercially acceptable Se content in florets (239 μg or 0.3 μmol g−1 DM)”
e2“it reduced Sorg (−45%), GlIb (−31%), and GlBr (−27%)”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 0.2 mM Se with the SiE surfactant reduced glucobrassicin content in broccoli florets by 27%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactante1
- Outcome
- GlBre2
- Direction
- reducede2
- Value
- −27%e2
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e1“the foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactant provided the lowest commercially acceptable Se content in florets (239 μg or 0.3 μmol g−1 DM)”
e2“it reduced Sorg (−45%), GlIb (−31%), and GlBr (−27%)”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 0.2 mM Se with the SiE surfactant increased carotenoid content in broccoli florets by 21%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactante1
- Outcome
- Care3
- Direction
- increasede3
- Value
- 21%e3
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e1“the foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactant provided the lowest commercially acceptable Se content in florets (239 μg or 0.3 μmol g−1 DM)”
e3“it increased Car (21%) and GlRa (27%)”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar 0.2 mM Se with the SiE surfactant increased glucoraphanin content in broccoli florets by 27%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactante1
- Outcome
- GlRae3
- Direction
- increasede3
- Value
- 27%e3
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e1“the foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactant provided the lowest commercially acceptable Se content in florets (239 μg or 0.3 μmol g−1 DM)”
e3“it increased Car (21%) and GlRa (27%)”
Claim · model-written summary
Methionine with 0.2 mM Se applied foliarly with IAE increased organic S content in broccoli florets by 35%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Met,Se0.2/FA,IAEe4
- Outcome
- Sorge4
- Direction
- increasede4
- Value
- 35%e4
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e4“that of Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE provided the lowest Se content per floret (183 μg or 0.2 μmol g−1 DM) and increased Sorg (35%), Car (45%), and total Chl (27%), with no effect on PPs or GSLs”
Claim · model-written summary
Methionine with 0.2 mM Se applied foliarly with IAE increased carotenoid content in broccoli florets by 45%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Met,Se0.2/FA,IAEe4
- Outcome
- Care4
- Direction
- increasede4
- Value
- 45%e4
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e4“that of Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE provided the lowest Se content per floret (183 μg or 0.2 μmol g−1 DM) and increased Sorg (35%), Car (45%), and total Chl (27%), with no effect on PPs or GSLs”
Claim · model-written summary
Methionine with 0.2 mM Se applied foliarly with IAE increased total chlorophyll content in broccoli florets by 27%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Met,Se0.2/FA,IAEe4
- Outcome
- total Chle4
- Direction
- increasede4
- Value
- 27%e4
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e4“that of Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE provided the lowest Se content per floret (183 μg or 0.2 μmol g−1 DM) and increased Sorg (35%), Car (45%), and total Chl (27%), with no effect on PPs or GSLs”
Claim · model-written summary
The Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE combination gave the lowest Se content per floret (183 μg or 0.2 μmol g−1 DM) among the studied combinations.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Met,Se0.2/FA,IAEe4
- Outcome
- Se content per florete4
- Direction
- loweste4
- Value
- 183 μg or 0.2 μmol g−1 DMe4
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e4“that of Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE provided the lowest Se content per floret (183 μg or 0.2 μmol g−1 DM) and increased Sorg (35%), Car (45%), and total Chl (27%), with no effect on PPs or GSLs”
Claim · model-written summary
Cys,Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE increased organic S content in broccoli florets by 36%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Cys,Met,Se0.2/FA,IAEe5
- Outcome
- Sorg contente5
- Direction
- increasede5
- Value
- 36%e5
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e5“Cys,Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE and amino acid mix,Se0.2/FA,IAE increased Sorg content, too, by 36% and 16%, respectively”
Claim · model-written summary
The amino acid mix with Se0.2/FA,IAE increased organic S content in broccoli florets by 16%.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- amino acid mix,Se0.2/FA,IAEe5
- Outcome
- Sorg contente5
- Direction
- increasede5
- Value
- 16%e5
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e5“Cys,Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE and amino acid mix,Se0.2/FA,IAE increased Sorg content, too, by 36% and 16%, respectively”
Claim · model-written summary
Cys,Met,Se0.2 combination had positive effects on glucosinolates in broccoli florets, especially glucoraphanin.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Cys,Met,Se0.2e6
- Outcome
- GSLse6
- Direction
- positive effectse6
- Qualifier
- especially GlRae6
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e6“Only the Cys,Met,Se0.2 combination presented positive effects on GSLs, especially GlRa, but it reduced the fresh mass of the floret”
Claim · model-written summary
The Cys,Met,Se0.2 combination reduced the fresh mass of broccoli florets.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Cys,Met,Se0.2e6
- Outcome
- fresh mass of the florete6
- Direction
- reducede6
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e6“Only the Cys,Met,Se0.2 combination presented positive effects on GSLs, especially GlRa, but it reduced the fresh mass of the floret”
Claim · model-written summary
Across combinations of 0.2 mM Se with amino acids, florets retained commercially acceptable Se content and yield was not affected.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Se 0.2 mM with amino acidse7
- Outcome
- yielde7
- Direction
- not affectede7
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e7“in all studied combinations of Se 0.2 mM with amino acids, the Se content per floret was commercially acceptable, the yield was not affected, the content of GSLs was increased (especially that of GlRa and GlIb), and PPs were not affected”
Claim · model-written summary
Across combinations of 0.2 mM Se with amino acids, the content of glucosinolates increased, especially glucoraphanin and glucoiberin.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Se 0.2 mM with amino acidse7
- Outcome
- content of GSLse7
- Direction
- was increasede7
- Qualifier
- especially that of GlRa and GlIbe7
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e7“in all studied combinations of Se 0.2 mM with amino acids, the Se content per floret was commercially acceptable, the yield was not affected, the content of GSLs was increased (especially that of GlRa and GlIb), and PPs were not affected”
Claim · model-written summary
The GlBr content decreased in broccoli florets treated with 0.2 mM Se and amino acids, except with methionine.
- Taxon
- BroccoliBrassica oleracea var. italicae0
- Treatment
- Se 0.2 mM with amino acidse7
- Outcome
- content of GlBre6
- Direction
- decreasede6
- Qualifier
- except for the treatment with methioninee6
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Broccoli serves as a functional food”
e7“in all studied combinations of Se 0.2 mM with amino acids, the Se content per floret was commercially acceptable, the yield was not affected, the content of GSLs was increased (especially that of GlRa and GlIb), and PPs were not affected”
e6“The content of GlBr decreased except for the treatment with methionine (Met,Se0.2/FA,SiE) where GlBr remained unaffected”
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