Abstract
A field experiment in growing spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.—cv. ‘Monsun’) under organic, integrated and conventional farming systems was conducted over the period of 2020–2022 at the Czesławice Experimental Farm (Lubelskie Voivodeship, Poland). The first experimental factor analyzed was the farming system: A. organic system (control)—without the use of chemical plant protection products and NPK mineral fertilization; B. conventional system—the use of plant protection products and NPK fertilization in the range and doses recommended for spring wheat; C. integrated system—use of plant protection products and NPK fertilization in an “economical” way—doses reduced by 50%. The second experimental factor was irrigation strategy: 1. no irrigation—control; 2. double irrigation; 3. multiple irrigation The aim of the research was to determine the physical, chemical, and enzymatic properties of loess soil under spring wheat crops as influenced by the factors listed above. The highest organic C content of the soil (1.11%) was determined in the integrated system with multiple irrigation of spring wheat, whereas the lowest one (0.77%)—in the conventional system without irrigation. In the conventional system, the highest contents of total N (0.15%), P (131.4 mg kg−1), and K (269.6 mg kg−1) in the soil were determined under conditions of multiple irrigation. In turn, the organic system facilitated the highest contents of Mg, B, Cu, Mn, and Zn in the soil, especially upon multiple irrigation of crops. It also had the most beneficial effect on the evaluated physical parameters of the soil. In each farming system, the multiple irrigation of spring wheat significantly increased moisture content, density, and compaction of the soil and also improved its total sorption capacity (particularly in the integrated system). The highest count of beneficial fungi, the lowest population number of pathogenic fungi, and the highest count of actinobacteria were recorded in the soil from the organic system. Activity of soil enzymes was the highest in the integrated system, followed by the organic system—particularly upon multiple irrigation of crops. Summing up, the present study results demonstrate varied effects of the farming systems on the quality and health of loess soil. From a scientific point of view, the integrated farming system ensures the most stable and balanced physicochemical and biological parameters of the soil due to the sufficient amount of nutrients supplied to the soil and the minimized impact of chemical plant protection products on the soil. The multiple irrigation of crops resulting from indications of soil moisture sensors mounted on plots (indicating the real need for irrigation) contributed to the improvement of almost all analyzed soil quality indices. Multiple irrigation generated high costs, but in combination with fertilization and chemical crop protection (conventional and integrated system), it influenced the high productivity of spring wheat and compensated for the incurred costs (the greatest profit).
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Claims 16
Claim · model-written summary
Integrated management with multiple irrigation gave the highest soil organic carbon, 1.11%.
- Taxon
- spring wheat
Triticum aestivume0 - Treatment
- integrated system with multiple irrigatione0
- Outcome
- organic C content of the soile0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Value
- 1.11%e0
- Comparator
- conventional system without irrigatione0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The highest organic C content of the soil (1.11%) was determined in the integrated system with multiple irrigation of spring wheat, whereas the lowest one (0.77%)—in the conventional system without irrigation”
Claim · model-written summary
Conventional management without irrigation had the lowest soil organic carbon, 0.77%.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivume0
- Treatment
- conventional system without irrigatione0
- Outcome
- organic C content of the soile0
- Direction
- loweste0
- Value
- 0.77%e0
- Comparator
- integrated system with multiple irrigatione0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The highest organic C content of the soil (1.11%) was determined in the integrated system with multiple irrigation of spring wheat, whereas the lowest one (0.77%)—in the conventional system without irrigation”
Claim · model-written summary
Under conventional management, multiple irrigation gave the highest soil total N, at 0.15%.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivume1
- Treatment
- multiple irrigatione0
- Outcome
- total Ne0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Value
- 0.15%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In the conventional system, the highest contents of total N (0.15%), P (131.4 mg kg−1), and K (269.6 mg kg−1) in the soil were determined under conditions of multiple irrigation”
e1“growing spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.—cv. ‘Monsun’)”
Claim · model-written summary
Under conventional management, multiple irrigation gave the highest soil P, at 131.4 mg kg−1.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivume1
- Treatment
- multiple irrigatione0
- Outcome
- Pe0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Value
- 131.4 mg kg−1e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In the conventional system, the highest contents of total N (0.15%), P (131.4 mg kg−1), and K (269.6 mg kg−1) in the soil were determined under conditions of multiple irrigation”
e1“growing spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.—cv. ‘Monsun’)”
Claim · model-written summary
Under conventional management, multiple irrigation gave the highest soil K, at 269.6 mg kg−1.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivume1
- Treatment
- multiple irrigatione0
- Outcome
- Ke0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Value
- 269.6 mg kg−1e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In the conventional system, the highest contents of total N (0.15%), P (131.4 mg kg−1), and K (269.6 mg kg−1) in the soil were determined under conditions of multiple irrigation”
e1“growing spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.—cv. ‘Monsun’)”
Claim · model-written summary
Organic management gave the highest soil Mg, B, Cu, Mn and Zn, especially with multiple irrigation.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- organic systeme0
- Outcome
- contents of Mg, B, Cu, Mn, and Zn in the soile0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Qualifier
- especially upon multiple irrigation of cropse0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“the organic system facilitated the highest contents of Mg, B, Cu, Mn, and Zn in the soil, especially upon multiple irrigation of crops”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Organic management had the most beneficial effect on measured soil physical parameters.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- the organic systeme1
- Outcome
- physical parameters of the soile0
- Direction
- most beneficiale0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“It also had the most beneficial effect on the evaluated physical parameters of the soil”
e1“In turn, the organic system facilitated”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Multiple irrigation significantly increased soil moisture, density and compaction in every farming system.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivume0
- Treatment
- multiple irrigatione0
- Outcome
- moisture content, density, and compaction of the soile0
- Direction
- increasede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In each farming system, the multiple irrigation of spring wheat significantly increased moisture content, density, and compaction of the soil”
Claim · model-written summary
Multiple irrigation improved soil total sorption capacity, particularly in the integrated system.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivume1
- Treatment
- multiple irrigatione1
- Outcome
- total sorption capacitye0
- Direction
- improvede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“improved its total sorption capacity (particularly in the integrated system)”
e1“In each farming system, the multiple irrigation of spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Organic management had the highest beneficial fungal count.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- organic systeme0
- Outcome
- count of beneficial fungie0
- Direction
- higheste0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The highest count of beneficial fungi, the lowest population number of pathogenic fungi, and the highest count of actinobacteria were recorded in the soil from the organic system”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Organic management had the lowest pathogenic fungal count.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- organic systeme0
- Outcome
- population number of pathogenic fungie0
- Direction
- loweste0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The highest count of beneficial fungi, the lowest population number of pathogenic fungi, and the highest count of actinobacteria were recorded in the soil from the organic system”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Organic management had the highest soil actinobacterial count.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- organic systeme0
- Outcome
- count of actinobacteriae0
- Direction
- higheste0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The highest count of beneficial fungi, the lowest population number of pathogenic fungi, and the highest count of actinobacteria were recorded in the soil from the organic system”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Soil enzyme activity was highest under integrated management, followed by organic management, particularly with multiple irrigation.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- integrated systeme0
- Outcome
- Activity of soil enzymese0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Comparator
- organic systeme0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Activity of soil enzymes was the highest in the integrated system, followed by the organic system—particularly upon multiple irrigation of crops”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
The integrated system was judged to provide the most stable and balanced soil properties.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- most stable and balanced physicochemical and biological parameters of the soile0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“the integrated farming system ensures the most stable and balanced physicochemical and biological parameters of the soil”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Sensor-guided multiple irrigation improved almost all measured soil quality indices.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- multiple irrigatione0
- Outcome
- soil quality indicese0
- Direction
- improvemente0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The multiple irrigation of crops resulting from indications of soil moisture sensors mounted on plots (indicating the real need for irrigation) contributed to the improvement of almost all analyzed soil quality indices”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Multiple irrigation with fertilization and crop protection increased wheat productivity enough to offset costs and yield the greatest profit.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivume0
- Treatment
- Multiple irrigatione0
- Outcome
- high productivity of spring wheate0
- Direction
- highe0
- Qualifier
- the greatest profite0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Multiple irrigation generated high costs, but in combination with fertilization and chemical crop protection (conventional and integrated system), it influenced the high productivity of spring wheat and compensated for the incurred costs (the greatest profit)”
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