Abstract
Untreated municipal wastewater is widely used for irrigation in peri-urban agriculture where freshwater is limited, yet its effects on edible vegetable crops remain context dependent. This study evaluated the morphological, physiological, phytochemical, and antioxidant responses of Allium cepa L. and Allium sativum L. under untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan. Wastewater had higher pH, electrical conductivity, suspended solids, and organic load than control water, indicating a chemically more complex irrigation source. Relative to the control, wastewater irrigation enhanced several visible growth traits in both species. In A. cepa, plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively, whereas in A. sativum the corresponding increases were 12.9%, 9.5%, 21.1%, and 73.5%. Reproductive traits also increased, although some large proportional changes, particularly garlic flower number, should be interpreted cautiously. In contrast, wastewater irrigation reduced chlorophyll and antioxidant activity in both species. Total chlorophyll declined by 33.7% in A. cepa and 22.4% in A. sativum, while antioxidant activity decreased across leaves, roots, and stems, with the strongest reduction observed in garlic stems. Qualitative phytochemical profiles shifted between treatments, but these observations were descriptive only and were not interpreted as statistically robust treatment effects. Overall, untreated municipal wastewater promoted several external growth traits but did not improve physiological or biochemical quality-related responses. These findings indicate a mixed plant response and suggest that visible growth enhancement under wastewater irrigation should not be interpreted as evidence of improved crop quality or safety.
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Claims 15
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased plant height of Allium cepa by 2.0% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. cepa
Allium cepae1 - Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- plant heighte1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Value
- 2.0%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“In A. cepa, plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased stem length of Allium cepa by 111.8% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. cepaAllium cepae1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- stem lengthe1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Value
- 111.8%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“In A. cepa, plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased leaf size of Allium cepa by 95.2% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. cepaAllium cepae1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- leaf sizee1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Value
- 95.2%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“In A. cepa, plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased root length of Allium cepa by 57.4% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. cepaAllium cepae1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- root lengthe1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Value
- 57.4%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“In A. cepa, plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased plant height of Allium sativum by 12.9% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. sativum
Allium sativume1 - Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- plant heighte1
- Direction
- increasese1
- Value
- 12.9%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively, whereas in A. sativum the corresponding increases were 12.9%, 9.5%, 21.1%, and 73.5%”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased stem length of Allium sativum by 9.5% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. sativumAllium sativume1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- stem lengthe1
- Direction
- increasese1
- Value
- 9.5%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively, whereas in A. sativum the corresponding increases were 12.9%, 9.5%, 21.1%, and 73.5%”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased leaf size of Allium sativum by 21.1% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. sativumAllium sativume1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- leaf sizee1
- Direction
- increasese1
- Value
- 21.1%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively, whereas in A. sativum the corresponding increases were 12.9%, 9.5%, 21.1%, and 73.5%”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation increased root length of Allium sativum by 73.5% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. sativumAllium sativume1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- root lengthe1
- Direction
- increasese1
- Value
- 73.5%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“plant height, stem length, leaf size, and root length increased by 2.0%, 111.8%, 95.2%, and 57.4%, respectively, whereas in A. sativum the corresponding increases were 12.9%, 9.5%, 21.1%, and 73.5%”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Reproductive traits of the Allium plants also increased under wastewater irrigation, but some large proportional changes, particularly garlic flower number, should be interpreted cautiously.
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- Reproductive traitse1
- Direction
- increasede1
- Qualifier
- some large proportional changes, particularly garlic flower number, should be interpreted cautiouslye1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e1“Reproductive traits also increased, although some large proportional changes, particularly garlic flower number, should be interpreted cautiously”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation reduced total chlorophyll in A. cepa by 33.7% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. cepaAllium cepae1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- Total chlorophylle1
- Direction
- declinede1
- Value
- 33.7%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“Total chlorophyll declined by 33.7% in A. cepa and 22.4% in A. sativum”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Untreated municipal wastewater irrigation reduced total chlorophyll in A. sativum by 22.4% relative to freshwater irrigation.
- Taxon
- A. sativumAllium sativume1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- Total chlorophylle1
- Direction
- declinede1
- Value
- 22.4%e1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“Total chlorophyll declined by 33.7% in A. cepa and 22.4% in A. sativum”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Antioxidant activity decreased across leaves, roots and stems under wastewater irrigation, with the strongest reduction in garlic stems.
- Organ / stage
- leaves, roots, and stemse1
- Treatment
- untreated municipal wastewater irrigatione2
- Outcome
- antioxidant activitye1
- Direction
- decreasede1
- Qualifier
- strongest reduction observed in garlic stemse1
- Comparator
- freshwater irrigatione2
- Setting
- Sialkot, Pakistane2
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e1“antioxidant activity decreased across leaves, roots, and stems, with the strongest reduction observed in garlic stems”
e2“untreated municipal wastewater irrigation compared with freshwater irrigation in a pot experiment conducted in Sialkot, Pakistan”
Claim · model-written summary
Qualitative phytochemical profiles shifted between wastewater and control treatments, but this was descriptive only and not interpreted as a statistically robust effect.
- Outcome
- Qualitative phytochemical profiles shifted between treatmentse1
- Qualifier
- descriptive only and were not interpreted as statistically robust treatment effectse1
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e1“Qualitative phytochemical profiles shifted between treatments, but these observations were descriptive only and were not interpreted as statistically robust treatment effects”
Claim · model-written summary
The wastewater had higher pH, electrical conductivity and suspended solids than control water.
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e1“Wastewater had higher pH, electrical conductivity, suspended solids, and organic load than control water”
Claim · model-written summary
The wastewater had higher organic load than control water.
Not reportedTaxon
Verbatim
e1“Wastewater had higher pH, electrical conductivity, suspended solids, and organic load than control water”
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