Abstract
As a kind of legume crop, lentils (Lens culinaris Medik.) with their high nutritional value are grown mainly for human consumption in many regions of the world. The crop has benefits in crop rotation due to its symbiotic N-fixation, which is important especially in organic farming, and it can also increase crop biodiversity in arable land. In Europe, lentils are considered one of the popular leguminous food crops. However, the cultivation and scientific research on lentils were neglected in Germany and Central Europe over the past 50 years. Recently, farmers have begun to realize the value of lentils and have re-introduced the crop into organic and conventional farming in Central Europe. The lentil plant has a weak stalk and is easily lodging. Lodging plants cannot be completely cut and picked up by combine harvesters, and result in yield loss, especially under the wet conditions that often occur in Central Europe. To avoid lodging of crop, lentils were commonly grown in mixed cropping with cereals, such as oat (Avena sativa L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and rye (Secale cereale L.). However, there is little current information on lentil cultivation under temperate climates in this region. One of the most relevant challenges for growing lentil is how to explore its yield potential adapt to the local conditions. Moreover, lentil plant has a low competition capacity against weeds which are always one of the big agronomic problems especially on organic farm. Therefore, three field experiments presented in this dissertation were carried out to design and improve lentil cropping systems under organic farming in Germany in terms of productivity and competitiveness performance, suitable species and proportion of companion crops, lentil cultivars, sowing dates, weed control, and seed quality. The results should be used to adapt lentil cropping systems to different local climatic conditions in Germany. The specific objectives were (i) to optimize lentil-based mixed cropping systems through different combinations of companion crops (barley, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), oat, linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench)) and mixing ratios, which were expected to show different performance on crop productivity, weed infestation, and lentil lodging, (ii) to determine whether different sowing time (early, medium, late) have effects on a standard lentil-barley mixed cropping system in regard to crop yield and weed control, (iii) to test whether woodchip mulch can help suppressing weeds and increasing crop yield in lentil monocropping and mixed cropping, (iv) to determine whether different mixing ratios affect seed protein content in lentil-cereals (barley, wheat) mixed cropping system. To achieve the first objective, a two-year field experiment of mixed cropping of lentils with five spring-sown companion crops: naked-barley, wheat, oats, linseed and buckwheat was conducted at the organic research station Kleinhohenheim in 2009 and 2010. Besides sole lentil and sole companion crops, three mixing ratios (3:1, 1:1, 1:3) were used. Lentil grain yield was 1.47 t ha-1 in monocropping and 0.58-1.07 t ha-1 in mixed cropping, depending on the mixing ratio and companion crop (Chapter 2). The land equivalent ratio (LER) was higher in mixed cropping than in monocropping generally. Lentil-wheat and lentil-barley mixed cropping with a ratio of 3:1 resulted in the highest LER (ca. 1.50) whereas lentil-linseed had the lowest LER in all ratios. Lowest lodging was observed in lentil-wheat and lentil-oat mixed cropping. Additionally, mixed cropping with ratios of 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 (lentil: companion crop) reduced weed biomass by 29 %, 41 % and 24 %, respectively, compared with lentil monocropping. The results indicated that lentil mixed cropping in the study seemed more promising than monocropping under the given conditions of the location. Except for the linseed, all tested species can be well used as companion crops especially the two cereals (barley and wheat) which can be recommended. The mixing ratio should consider the total yield advantage (LER), the risk of crop lodging, and marketing considerations of both crops. To achieve the second objective of the study, another two-year (2009-2010) field trial was carried out at two sites: the organic research station Kleinhohenheim (KH) and the conventional research station Oberer Lindenhof (OLI) (Chapter 3). The crop was sown at three dates (early, medium and late) in the period from March to May. Four genotypes of lentil: Anicia, Schwarze Linse, Hellerlinse and Berglinse were mixed-cropped with naked-barley at a ratio of 3:1 (lentil:barley) at each sowing date. Results showed that grain yield of crops was significantly higher at the earliest sowing both for lentils (3.0 t ha-1 at KH, 2.4 t ha-1 at OLI) and barley (1.2 t ha-1 at KH, 2.6 t ha-1 at OLI). Lentil seed per plant, barley seed per ear, and thousand kernel weight of crops decreased significantly with delayed sowing. At KH experimental site, weed biomass increased significantly with delayed sowing and was independent of the lentil genotype, whereas sowing date had no significant effect on overall weed biomass production at OLI. The results indicated that early sowing can increase the yield of lentils, and can also be used as an indirect method of weed control in organic farming. To further control weeds to achieve the third objective, a field experiment of applying woodchips mulch on lentils was carried out at the organic research station Kleinhohenheim, in the years 2009 and 2010 (Chapter 4). Two years on average, an amount of 160 m3 ha-1 (fresh matter) woodchips mulch reduced weed biomass and weed density in both cropping systems compared to no mulch treatment, with a reduction by 43 % and 29 % (sole), and by 51 % and 30 % (mixed) respectively. Mixed cropping of lentils with barley (3:1) also decreased weed biomass compared with lentil sole cropping; however, no effect on weed density was observed. Lentil grain yield from sole and mixed cropping was 3.0-3.4 t ha-1 and 2.1-2.2 t ha-1 (2009), and 1.0-1.1 t ha-1 and 0.8-0.9 t ha-1 (2010). Barley grain yield was 1.4 t ha-1 in 2009 and 0.7 t ha-1 in 2010. Despite decreasing weeds, the mulch did not improve crops grain yields in mixed or sole cropping. The combination of woodchip mulch and mixed cropping is useful to reduce weed infestation in cropping systems where chemical or mechanical weed control is not possible and for crops with a low capacity for competition against weeds. Another focus of the study was on seed quality (protein content), especially for the cereals (Chapter 5). The two mixed cropping systems: lentil-wheat and lentil-barley with five seeding ratios (4:0, 3:1, 1:1, 1:3, 0:4) were tested at the organic research station Kleinhohenheim in 2009 and 2010 (originated from the experiment 1). Results showed that cereal grain protein increased significantly when their proportion was reduced in the mixture with lentils. Wheat crude protein increased from 10.3 % (2009) and 11.0 % (2010) in monocropping to 11.5 % (2009) and 15.1 % (2010) in mixed cropping with 75 % lentils. Barley crude protein increased in the same way from 13.7 % in monocropping to 15.8 % in mixed cropping with 75 % lentils. However, lentil protein content did not differ significantly across all mixing ratios. Total crude protein in a mixture was significantly higher than that in cereals or lentils monocropping. Mixed cropping with lentils can thus be an option to obtain a high protein content of wheat which is important for a suitable breadmaking quality, particularly in organic farming. Summarizing, the overall results of the study will open new options for growing lentils in Central Europe from where the crop has vanished over the last decades and may guide the future of lentil production in multi-cropping.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
Lentil grain yield ranged from 0.58 to 1.07 t ha-1 under mixed cropping versus 1.47 t ha-1 in monocropping.
- Taxon
- Lentil
Lens culinarise0 - Treatment
- mixed croppinge0
- Outcome
- grain yielde0
- Direction
- lowerinferrede0
- Value
- 0.58-1.07 t ha-1e0
- Qualifier
- 1.47 t ha-1e0
- Comparator
- monocroppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Lentil grain yield was 1.47 t ha-1 in monocropping and 0.58-1.07 t ha-1 in mixed cropping, depending on the mixing ratio and companion crop”
Claim · model-written summary
Mixed cropping generally had a higher land equivalent ratio than monocropping.
- Taxon
- LentilLens culinarist0
- Treatment
- mixed croppinge0
- Outcome
- land equivalent ratio (LER)e0
- Direction
- highere0
- Comparator
- monocroppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The land equivalent ratio (LER) was higher in mixed cropping than in monocropping generally.”
t0“Lentil production in Germany”
Claim · model-written summary
Lentil-wheat mixed cropping at a 3:1 ratio had the highest land equivalent ratio, about 1.50.
- Taxon
- LentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- Lentil-wheat and lentil-barley mixed cropping with a ratio of 3:1e0
- Outcome
- highest LERe0
- Direction
- higheste0
- Value
- ca. 1.50e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Lentil-wheat and lentil-barley mixed cropping with a ratio of 3:1 resulted in the highest LER (ca. 1.50) whereas lentil-linseed had the lowest LER in all ratios.”
Claim · model-written summary
Lentil-linseed mixtures had the lowest land equivalent ratio across ratios.
- Taxon
- LentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- lentil-linseede0
- Outcome
- lowest LERe0
- Direction
- loweste0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Lentil-wheat and lentil-barley mixed cropping with a ratio of 3:1 resulted in the highest LER (ca. 1.50) whereas lentil-linseed had the lowest LER in all ratios.”
Claim · model-written summary
Lentil-wheat and lentil-oat mixtures had the lowest lodging.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- lentil-wheat and lentil-oat mixed croppinge0
- Outcome
- lodginge0
- Direction
- Loweste0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Lowest lodging was observed in lentil-wheat and lentil-oat mixed cropping.”
Claim · model-written summary
A 3:1 lentil mixture reduced weed biomass by 29% relative to lentil monocropping.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- 3:1e0
- Interactor
- weede0weed
- Outcome
- weed biomasse0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Value
- 29 %e0
- Comparator
- lentil monocroppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“mixed cropping with ratios of 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 (lentil: companion crop) reduced weed biomass by 29 %, 41 % and 24 %, respectively, compared with lentil monocropping.”
Claim · model-written summary
A 1:1 lentil mixture reduced weed biomass by 41% relative to lentil monocropping.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- 1:1e0
- Interactor
- weede0weed
- Outcome
- weed biomasse0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Value
- 41 %e0
- Comparator
- lentil monocroppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“mixed cropping with ratios of 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 (lentil: companion crop) reduced weed biomass by 29 %, 41 % and 24 %, respectively, compared with lentil monocropping.”
Claim · model-written summary
A 1:3 lentil mixture reduced weed biomass by 24% relative to lentil monocropping.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- 1:3e0
- Interactor
- weede0weed
- Outcome
- weed biomasse0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Value
- 24 %e0
- Comparator
- lentil monocroppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“mixed cropping with ratios of 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 (lentil: companion crop) reduced weed biomass by 29 %, 41 % and 24 %, respectively, compared with lentil monocropping.”
Claim · model-written summary
The earliest sowing gave significantly higher lentil grain yield at both sites.
- Taxon
- lentilsLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- earliest sowinge0
- Outcome
- grain yielde0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 3.0 t ha-1e0
- Setting
- KHe0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“grain yield of crops was significantly higher at the earliest sowing both for lentils (3.0 t ha-1 at KH, 2.4 t ha-1 at OLI) and barley (1.2 t ha-1 at KH, 2.6 t ha-1 at OLI).”
Claim · model-written summary
The earliest sowing gave significantly higher barley grain yield.
- Taxon
- barley
.jpg?width=60)
Hordeum vulgaree0 - Treatment
- earliest sowinge0
- Outcome
- grain yielde0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 1.2 t ha-1e0
- Setting
- KHe0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
.jpg?width=500)
Verbatim
e0“grain yield of crops was significantly higher at the earliest sowing both for lentils (3.0 t ha-1 at KH, 2.4 t ha-1 at OLI) and barley (1.2 t ha-1 at KH, 2.6 t ha-1 at OLI).”
Claim · model-written summary
Delayed sowing significantly decreased lentil seed number per plant.
- Taxon
- LentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- delayed sowinge0
- Outcome
- seed per plante0
- Direction
- decreasede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Lentil seed per plant, barley seed per ear, and thousand kernel weight of crops decreased significantly with delayed sowing.”
Claim · model-written summary
Delayed sowing significantly decreased barley seed per ear and crop thousand kernel weight.
- Taxon
- barleyHordeum vulgaree0
- Treatment
- delayed sowinge0
- Outcome
- seed per ear, and thousand kernel weight of cropse0
- Direction
- decreasede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Lentil seed per plant, barley seed per ear, and thousand kernel weight of crops decreased significantly with delayed sowing.”
Claim · model-written summary
Delayed sowing increased weed biomass at KH, independently of lentil genotype.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarist0
- Treatment
- delayed sowinge0
- Interactor
- weede0weed
- Outcome
- weed biomasse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Setting
- KH experimental sitee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“At KH experimental site, weed biomass increased significantly with delayed sowing and was independent of the lentil genotype, whereas sowing date had no significant effect on overall weed biomass production at OLI.”
t0“Lentil production in Germany”
Claim · model-written summary
Sowing date had no significant effect on weed biomass at OLI.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarist0
- Treatment
- sowing datee0
- Interactor
- weede0weed
- Outcome
- overall weed biomass productione0
- Direction
- no significant effecte0
- Setting
- OLIe0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“At KH experimental site, weed biomass increased significantly with delayed sowing and was independent of the lentil genotype, whereas sowing date had no significant effect on overall weed biomass production at OLI.”
t0“Lentil production in Germany”
Claim · model-written summary
Woodchip mulch reduced weed biomass and density in sole lentil crops by 43% and 29%, respectively.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarist0
- Treatment
- woodchips mulche0
- Interactor
- weede0weed
- Outcome
- weed biomass and weed densitye0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Value
- 43 % and 29 %e0
- Comparator
- no mulch treatmente0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“woodchips mulch reduced weed biomass and weed density in both cropping systems compared to no mulch treatment, with a reduction by 43 % and 29 % (sole), and by 51 % and 30 % (mixed) respectively.”
t0“Lentil production in Germany”
Claim · model-written summary
Woodchip mulch reduced weed biomass and density in mixed lentil crops by 51% and 30%, respectively.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarist0
- Treatment
- woodchips mulche0
- Interactor
- weede0weed
- Outcome
- weed biomass and weed densitye0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Value
- 51 % and 30 %e0
- Comparator
- no mulch treatmente0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“woodchips mulch reduced weed biomass and weed density in both cropping systems compared to no mulch treatment, with a reduction by 43 % and 29 % (sole), and by 51 % and 30 % (mixed) respectively.”
t0“Lentil production in Germany”
Claim · model-written summary
Woodchip mulch did not improve grain yields despite reducing weeds.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarist0
- Treatment
- mulche0
- Interactor
- weedse0weed
- Outcome
- crops grain yieldse0
- Direction
- did not improvee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Despite decreasing weeds, the mulch did not improve crops grain yields in mixed or sole cropping.”
t0“Lentil production in Germany”
Claim · model-written summary
Wheat crude protein increased under mixed cropping with 75% lentils relative to monocropping.
- Taxon
- Wheat
Triticum aestivume0 - Treatment
- mixed cropping with 75 % lentilse0
- Outcome
- crude proteine0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 11.5 % (2009) and 15.1 % (2010)e0
- Comparator
- monocroppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Wheat crude protein increased from 10.3 % (2009) and 11.0 % (2010) in monocropping to 11.5 % (2009) and 15.1 % (2010) in mixed cropping with 75 % lentils.”
Claim · model-written summary
Barley crude protein increased from 13.7% to 15.8% in a mixture with 75% lentils.
- Taxon
- BarleyHordeum vulgaree0
- Treatment
- mixed cropping with 75 % lentilse0
- Outcome
- crude proteine0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 15.8 %e0
- Comparator
- monocroppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Barley crude protein increased in the same way from 13.7 % in monocropping to 15.8 % in mixed cropping with 75 % lentils.”
Claim · model-written summary
Lentil protein content did not differ significantly by mixing ratio, while total mixture protein exceeded monocultures.
- Taxon
- lentilLens culinarise0
- Treatment
- mixing ratiose0
- Outcome
- lentil protein contente0
- Direction
- did not differe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“However, lentil protein content did not differ significantly across all mixing ratios. Total crude protein in a mixture was significantly higher than that in cereals or lentils monocropping.”
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Claims are grouped by organism, treatment and what was measured or targeted. A paper counts as positive when any of its claims in the group is positive.