Abstract
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the primary greenhouse gas driving global warming, with annual emissions projected to reach 80 billion tons by 2050. One promising pathway for terrestrial carbon (C) sequestration is the occlusion of C within plant silica formations – phytoliths (PhytOC). To evaluate potential of wheat for PhytOC-based CO₂ sequestration, a field survey was conducted in the Vojvodina region (Serbia), which accounts for 55% of the country’s wheat production. Wheat straw and topsoil samples (plough depth) were collected from 25 sites under typical farming practices involving crop rotation (mostly maize and sunflower, rarely soybean or sugar beet) and NPK fertilization. PhytOC concentrations ranged from 50-260 mg kg⁻¹ in topsoil and 40-860 mg kg⁻¹ in wheat straw, revealing considerable genotypic variation. To assess the effect of Si fertilization, both soil (150 kg Si ha⁻¹) and foliar (1 mM H₄SiO₄) applications were tested. Compared to untreated control, straw phytolith content increased by 30% and 50% with foliar and soil Si, respectively. Correspondingly, straw biomass increased from 8.34 t ha-1 (control) to 9.45 t ha-1 (foliar Si) and 9.53 t ha-1 (soil Si), nearly doubling PhytOC yield in the Si treatments. A 60-year crop rotation trial further examined the long-term effects on PhytOC sequestration. Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times), resulting in nearly double PhytOC yields (160 and 150 mg kg⁻¹ vs. 90 mg kg⁻¹). Soil PhytOC storage increased by 25% in three-crop systems (two grains and a legume) compared to monoculture, and by 60% in two grain crops rotations. In Vojvodina, PhytOC-based CO₂ sequestration in soil (at plough depth) is estimated at 334 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹, while wheat straw captures approximately 15 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹ annually, corresponding to an estimated 5,500,000 kg CO₂ yr-1 across the region. These findings highlight that wheat’s capacity for PhytOC-based CO₂ sequestration can be substantially improved through genotypic selection, Si fertilization, and diverse crop rotations, offering a sustainable strategy for climate-smart agriculture.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
Topsoil PhytOC concentration ranged from 50-260 mg kg⁻¹ at wheat production sites.
- Taxon
- wheat
Triticum aestivumt0 - Organ / stage
- topsoile0
- Outcome
- PhytOC concentrationse0
- Value
- 50-260 mg kg⁻¹e0
Not reportedSetting
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“PhytOC concentrations ranged from 50-260 mg kg⁻¹ in topsoil and 40-860 mg kg⁻¹ in wheat straw, revealing considerable genotypic variation.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Wheat straw PhytOC concentration ranged from 40-860 mg kg⁻¹, with considerable genotypic variation.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Organ / stage
- wheat strawe0
- Outcome
- PhytOC concentrationse0
- Value
- 40-860 mg kg⁻¹e0
- Qualifier
- considerable genotypic variatione0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“PhytOC concentrations ranged from 50-260 mg kg⁻¹ in topsoil and 40-860 mg kg⁻¹ in wheat straw, revealing considerable genotypic variation.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar silicon increased wheat straw phytolith content by 30% against untreated control.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- foliare0
- Outcome
- straw phytolith contente0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 30%e0
- Comparator
- untreated controle0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to untreated control, straw phytolith content increased by 30% and 50% with foliar and soil Si, respectively.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Soil silicon increased wheat straw phytolith content by 50% against untreated control.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- soil Sie0
- Outcome
- straw phytolith contente0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 50%e0
- Comparator
- untreated controle0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to untreated control, straw phytolith content increased by 30% and 50% with foliar and soil Si, respectively.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Foliar silicon increased wheat straw biomass from 8.34 to 9.45 t ha-1.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- foliar Sie0
- Outcome
- straw biomasse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 9.45 t ha-1e0
- Qualifier
- 8.34 t ha-1e0
- Comparator
- controle0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Correspondingly, straw biomass increased from 8.34 t ha-1 (control) to 9.45 t ha-1 (foliar Si) and 9.53 t ha-1 (soil Si), nearly doubling PhytOC yield in the Si treatments.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Soil silicon increased wheat straw biomass from 8.34 to 9.53 t ha-1.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- soil Sie0
- Outcome
- straw biomasse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 9.53 t ha-1e0
- Qualifier
- 8.34 t ha-1e0
- Comparator
- controle0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Correspondingly, straw biomass increased from 8.34 t ha-1 (control) to 9.45 t ha-1 (foliar Si) and 9.53 t ha-1 (soil Si), nearly doubling PhytOC yield in the Si treatments.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Silicon treatments nearly doubled wheat PhytOC yield.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- Si treatmentse0
- Outcome
- PhytOC yielde0
- Direction
- doublinge0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“nearly doubling PhytOC yield in the Si treatments.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Two-crop rotation increased wheat biomass 1.3 times compared with wheat monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- two-crop (maize–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- wheat biomasse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 1.3e0
- Qualifier
- timese0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times)”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Three-crop rotation increased wheat biomass 1.7 times compared with wheat monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- wheat biomasse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 1.7e0
- Qualifier
- timese0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times)”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Two-crop rotation increased wheat leaf silicon concentration 1.3 times compared with monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- two-crop (maize–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- leaf Si concentratione0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 1.3e0
- Qualifier
- timese0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times)”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Three-crop rotation increased wheat leaf silicon concentration 1.6 times compared with monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- leaf Si concentratione0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 1.6e0
- Qualifier
- timese0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times)”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Two-crop rotation increased wheat straw phytolith accumulation 2.4 times compared with monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- two-crop (maize–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- straw phytolith accumulatione0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 2.4e0
- Qualifier
- timese0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times)”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Three-crop rotation increased wheat straw phytolith accumulation 2.6 times compared with monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- straw phytolith accumulatione0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 2.6e0
- Qualifier
- timese0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times)”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Two-crop rotation increased wheat PhytOC yield to 160 mg kg⁻¹ versus 90 mg kg⁻¹ under monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- two-crop (maize–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- PhytOC yieldse0
- Direction
- nearly doublee0
- Value
- 160e0
- Qualifier
- 90 mg kg⁻¹e0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times), resulting in nearly double PhytOC yields (160 and 150 mg kg⁻¹ vs. 90 mg kg⁻¹).”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Three-crop rotation increased wheat PhytOC yield to 150 mg kg⁻¹ versus 90 mg kg⁻¹ under monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat)e0
- Outcome
- PhytOC yieldse0
- Direction
- nearly doublee0
- Value
- 150 mg kg⁻¹e0
- Qualifier
- 90 mg kg⁻¹e0
- Comparator
- monoculture wheate0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared to monoculture wheat, two-crop (maize–wheat) and three-crop (maize–soybean–wheat) rotations increased wheat biomass (by 1.3 and 1.7 times), leaf Si concentration (by 1.3 and 1.6 times), and straw phytolith accumulation (by 2.4 and 2.6 times), resulting in nearly double PhytOC yields (160 and 150 mg kg⁻¹ vs. 90 mg kg⁻¹).”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Three-crop rotation increased soil PhytOC storage by 25% versus monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- three-crop systems (two grains and a legume)e0
- Outcome
- Soil PhytOC storagee0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 25%e0
- Comparator
- monoculturee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Soil PhytOC storage increased by 25% in three-crop systems (two grains and a legume) compared to monoculture, and by 60% in two grain crops rotations.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Two-grain crop rotation increased soil PhytOC storage by 60% versus monoculture.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- two grain crops rotationse0
- Outcome
- Soil PhytOC storagee0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 60%e0
- Comparator
- monoculturee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Soil PhytOC storage increased by 25% in three-crop systems (two grains and a legume) compared to monoculture, and by 60% in two grain crops rotations.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Estimated soil PhytOC sequestration in Vojvodina wheat systems was 334 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- PhytOC-based CO₂ sequestration in soile0
- Value
- 334 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹e0
- Setting
- Vojvodinae0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In Vojvodina, PhytOC-based CO₂ sequestration in soil (at plough depth) is estimated at 334 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Wheat straw captured an estimated 15 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹ annually.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- wheat straw capturese0
- Value
- 15 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹e0
- Qualifier
- annuallye0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“while wheat straw captures approximately 15 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹ annually, corresponding to an estimated 5,500,000 kg CO₂ yr-1 across the region.”
t0“wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Regional wheat straw capture was estimated at 5,500,000 kg CO₂ yr-1.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- CO₂e0
- Value
- 5,500,000 kg CO₂ yr-1e0
- Setting
- the regione0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“corresponding to an estimated 5,500,000 kg CO₂ yr-1 across the region.”
t0“wheat”
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